Treatise 42: Provinces and Districts I

¶In the remote age of antiquity, the two deities Izanagi and Izanami brought the land into being. The Heavenly Ancestor Amaterasu-Ōmikami succeeded them, illuminating and governing all under heaven; wherever her virtuous influence reached, all living things grew and flourished, and the five grains ripened in abundance. For this reason the spirit of the Ōyashima (the Great Eight Islands) was praised and called "the land of abundant life and plenty" (Ikuni Tarukuni). When successive emperors honored these deities, the ritual prayers declared: "In the realm governed by the imperial deities, the many lands and islands, where narrow, are made broad, where steep, are made level, and whether the land be large or small, none is left over"; and to the Heavenly Ancestor they declared: "To the farthest bounds of heaven and the ends of the earth that the Sun Deity illuminates, wherever a horse's hoof may tread and wherever boats and oars may pass, there is none that does not come and submit as a king." This was the grand design of a sacred founding of the realm, and the successive courts upheld it as the guiding principle of government. The Grand Founder (Emperor Jinmu) rose like a dragon, fixed his capital in Yamato, and ruled the central plain (the heart of the country). Emperor Sujin sent armies out in the four directions on campaigns, and even distant barbarians submitted to his civilizing influence. Emperor Keikō pacified east and west; Empress Jingū brought the Three Kingdoms of Korea to submission; Empress Saimei subdued the Emishi and campaigned against the Mishihase; and Emperor Kanmu drove the foreign peoples beyond the sea. That the great achievement of unifying all under heaven was thus accomplished was nothing other than the result of following the teachings of the ancestors and fulfilling heaven's charge. Sacred sons and divine grandsons have succeeded one another generation after generation, and down to the present, 2,300 years have passed as if they were a single day. The virtue of the imperial house is so vast, so expansive, that it is almost beyond description. Moreover, from the Omi, Muraji and Tomo-no-miyatsuko to the Kuni-no-miyatsuko and Agata-nushi, the civil and military ministers and officials all descend from imperial and divine lineages, and their families have flourished and filled the whole country. The hearts of the people are simple and united, and customs are devoted to righteousness and courage. The way the myriad people uphold the imperial house is truly like revering the gods. Should some foreign barbarian ever spy upon the frontier, once defeated he holds his breath and never again dares to invade. This is brought about by the spirit of a land of natural fortresses, with benevolence above and loyalty below. Now the land of the Ōyashima has beautiful mountains and rivers filled with numinous energy, and is surrounded on all sides by the great sea. To the west it faces the Three Kingdoms of Korea, to the south it communicates with the Sui state, and to the north it borders on the Mohe. Ever since the Grand Founder established the system of enfeoffment, Kuni-no-miyatsuko were appointed generation after generation. By the time of Emperor Keitai the number of provinces came to about 144, and the Agata-nushi and Ōkimi (Yūkun) were subordinate to them. Afterwards the names of the Kuni-no-miyatsuko appear less and less in the histories. One may suppose that the weak could not stand on their own, while the strong overstepped their bounds, raised rebellions and lost their fiefs; moreover the power of the Ōomi and Ōmuraji grew excessive, so that they annexed counties and villages and monopolized mountains and marshes, and the abuses were beyond telling. The Taika Reform halted and abolished all of these, and instituted the system of provinces and districts. The achievements of provincial governors and district governors were assessed to determine promotion and demotion; the whole country was well and cleanly governed, and the people relied upon it and lived in peace. Now since the Grand Founder, the imperial capital had been moved many times, but for the most part it never left the land of Yamato. Yet the configuration of the realm was light in the west and heavy in the east, and it was held fitting to dwell in the southwest and control the northeast, because the Emishi had long defied the royal civilizing influence. Prince Naka-no-Ōe (Emperor Tenji), on his accession, moved the capital to Ōmi, and Emperor Tenmu planned to move it to Shinano but did not succeed. All of these were because their ambitions lay in the east. Emperor Kanmu pacified it in a single stroke, had a stele erected on the northern frontier inscribed "Center of Japan," and accomplished the aims of the imperial ancestors and forebears. Ah, how valiant this was! Before this, the Three Kingdoms of Korea had become subject, and the Mimana Nihon-fu (the Japanese Office) was established to keep them in order. After Emperor Kinmei they became "loosely bridled" lands (kibi), subordinated to the Dazaifu. In the southern seas lay the Ryūkyū, where island governors were appointed to rule, and later they were attached to Ōsumi Province. Under Emperor Saga the Chinjufu (Pacification Office) was established in Mutsu, with particular importance given to its charge of keeping both the people and the barbarians in order, and when an incident arose, troops of Bandō were dispatched to put it down. Thus there was no longer any anxiety about looking to the east. But once persons of prestige came to preside over strategic strongholds, and troops and horses grew strong and dominated their home districts by force, then as time passed they could not help devising plans for independence. When it came to Minamoto no Yoritomo, he based himself at Kamakura and opened a military government, appointed his meritorious old retainers, officers and soldiers as Shugo (military governors) and Jitō (stewards), and privately carved out estates (shōen) to give them. At this point the system of provinces and districts began to collapse, and the authority of the Shugo and Jitō gradually grew heavier. The founding and abolition of estates and the changes of districts and hamlets bear upon the great tendencies of the realm and are by no means trivial matters. For that reason, relying on their names, we observe the manner of their changes. Now the compilation of maps and registers began in the Taika era and was completed in the Enchō era. The provinces presented their Fudoki (gazetteers), and the Ministry of Popular Affairs (Minbushō) gathered them into map-registers; one may say these were complete. Regrettably, because of the turmoil and dispersal of the medieval age, records and books were lost, and their details can no longer be examined today. Now, relying on works such as the Engishiki and the Wamyō Shō, taking the system of the Five Home Provinces and Seven Circuits as the basis, and drawing on the historical records on the side, we write this section, append the Western Barbarians and the two islands of the north and south, and make the "Treatise on Provinces and Districts."

¶In the first age of antiquity, the two deities Izanagi and Izanami, receiving the command of the heavenly deities, first opened up the land and obtained Onogoro Island. Next they obtained Awaji Island, then Iyo-no-Futana Island, then Oki Island, then Tsukushi Island, then Iki Island, then Tsushima Island, then Sado Island, and then Ōyamato Toyoakizu Island, and these they called the Ōyashima (the Great Eight Islands). They further obtained Kibi-no-Kojima, Azukijima, Ōshima, Megashima and Chikashima, and various other small islands were attached to these. They then had Hono-no-sakewake, Iyori-biko and the other deities of rivers and seas, mountains and fields, and plants and trees each take a share in governing them. (Source: Nihon Shoki, Kojiki. Note: Considering the matter, the various accounts cited in the Nihon Shoki do not agree with one another on the order of the eight islands. In sum they differ little, so I do not annotate them in detail here. Moreover, the Kojiki gives separate names for each of the eight islands and those that follow; for example, it calls Iyo "Ehime," Sanuki "Iyori-biko," and Ōyamato Toyoakizu Island "Ame-no-mi-sora Toyoakizu-ne-wake," as seen in detail in the Treatise on the Deities of Heaven and Earth. Since the various deities had already been made to govern their respective lands, may it be that the so-called system of enfeoffment had already begun in the age of the gods? I append this for the time being as reference.) They then decreed that Amaterasu-Ōmikami should govern Takamagahara and that Susanoo-no-Mikoto should govern the world below heaven. Susanoo-no-Mikoto first descended to the land of Korea, but, seeing the lay of that land, returned to Izumo; there he punished the violent and soothed those who submitted, proclaimed the imperial civilization, fostered the timber of mountains and marshes, and opened up the benefits of boats and oars. His descendants Isotakeru-no-Mikoto, Ōkunitama-no-Kami, Tsuchi-no-Mioya-no-Kami and others all rendered great services to the land. With Ōnamuchi-no-Mikoto the work of opening up the land was greatly expanded; joining forces and hearts with Sukunabikona-no-Mikoto, he administered all under heaven and at last achieved the merit of laying a great foundation. Thereupon the Heavenly Ancestor (Amaterasu-Ōmikami) wished to send down her crown prince Ame-no-Oshihomimi-no-Mikoto to be lord of the Central Land (the Central Land of the Reed Plains), but the prince, troubled that there were those who did not submit, would not consent to descend. So the Heavenly Ancestor sent the two deities Futsunushi-no-Kami and Takemikazuchi-no-Kami to summon and instruct Ōnamuchi-no-Kami. Ōnamuchi-no-Kami offered up the land to show his sincerity. The two deities then traveled throughout the land, punishing those who did not submit and soothing those who yielded, so that none failed to submit, even to the eastern limits and the northern frontier. The prince then petitioned the Heavenly Ancestor and arranged for the imperial grandson Hikoho-no-Ninigi-no-Mikoto to descend to the Central Land in his stead. Ōnamuchi-no-Kami led his kin and guarded him. (Following the Nihon Shoki and the Kojiki, with reference to both. From the words "led his kin" onward, the general sense follows the Engishiki.) The imperial grandson, wishing to pacify and soothe the Western Province, descended onto the peak of Takachiho in So in Hyūga; from there he went about seeking land from the place of Kushihi no Futagami, and arriving at Kasasa Cape in Nagaya of Ata he settled his residence. (Source: Nihon Shoki.) Thereafter, through three generations down to the Grand Founder (Emperor Jinmu), they all dwelt at the Takachiho Palace. (Source: Kojiki.)

¶Originally the Western Province was a land administered by Izanagi-no-Mikoto, and many descendants of the deities lived there; Ōyamatsumi-no-Kami, Kotokatsu-kunikatsu-no-Kami, Watatsumi-no-Kami and others, either offering up their daughters or presenting their lands, each showed their sincerity. (Source: Nihon Shoki, with reference to the Kojiki.) By this time the kin of the heavenly grandson had multiplied, and holding Satsuma, Ōsumi, Hyūga and other lands they served as a protective screen. (Source: Nihon Shoki, Shoku Nihongi, Shōjiroku.) The undertaking of the imperial house is indeed founded here, but at that time, although the Western Province had already submitted, the eastern lands had not yet been pacified. Nigihayahi-no-Mikoto, as a member of the heavenly grandson's kin, had long resided in Yamato, and the local chieftain Nagasunehiko served him as lord. Besides these, various chieftains held sway in separate places and there was no unity. The Grand Founder (Emperor Jinmu) was filled with indignant resolve to pacify all under heaven, and considered that to expand the great enterprise it would be best to establish the capital in Yamato. He therefore dispatched a naval force and set out eastward; arriving at the Hayasui Strait he summoned Udhuhiko as a guide, and from Usa in Tsukushi, passing through the Oka no Minato, he came to Aki, then advanced to Kibi and stayed three years at the Takashima Palace. Then, going east past Naniwa, he sought to enter the Central Land (Yamato) by way of Kawachi, but the imperial army did not fare well in battle, so changing course he went around Chinu, Kii, Kumano, Uda, Yoshino and Shiki, and attacked Nagasunehiko. Nigihayahi-no-Mikoto killed Nagasunehiko and submitted, and all the chieftains were wholly subdued. Separately he sent a general to pacify Ise. (From "separately sent" onward, following the Ise Fudoki as cited in the Shaku Nihongi.) He then fixed the capital in Yamato, dwelt at the Kashihara Palace, inaugurated the system of provinces and agata, established the Kuni-no-miyatsuko, and set up Agata-nushi and Agata-no-atai. (Agata-no-atai follows the Kuji Hongi.) His rule extended in the east as far as Fusa, Yūki and Awa, (from "in the east" onward, following the Kogo Shūi) and the great enterprise of unifying all under heaven was settled here; he was styled "the Emperor who first ruled the land" (Hatsukunishirasu Sumeramikoto). Because successive courts continued to make their capitals here, in later ages the whole country was collectively called Yamato, or the characters for "Nihon" (Japan) were used. (Source: Nihon Shoki.) This is because the descendants of the Sun Deity founded the nation and nurtured the people, and all that the sun illuminated received the imperial civilization. (The general sense follows the Nihon Shoki and the Engishiki.) For this reason no separate name for the country was established. That the country is called Toyoashihara Mizuho no Kuni, and also Ashihara no Chiiohaki Mizuho no Kuni, is to praise the boundless foundation of the imperial house and the suitability of the land for the ripening of grain. It is also called the Central Land of the Reed Plains, (Source: Nihon Shoki, Kojiki) or simply the Central Land. (Source: Nihon Shoki, Shoku Nihongi.) Now the land of the Ōyashima lies in the east, where the sun in heaven first shines upon it. Because the divine sages founded it and ruled all under heaven, the western barbarian states called the imperial court the "Land of the Gods" and called it "Nihon" (Japan); this too accords with the natural configuration of things.

¶Emperor Sujin made Ōhiko-no-Mikoto and others generals and sent troops out along the Four Circuits, bringing uncultivated customs into submission and punishing the disaffected. He decreed that his son Prince Toyoki should go out and govern the eastern lands; instruction and civilization flourished greatly, the whole country was at peace, and the emperor was styled "the Emperor who first ruled the land" (Hatsukunishirasu Sumeramikoto). In his later years Mimana came to pay tribute, presented the land of Mitsu-no-Komon, and asked that officials be sent to keep order there. (From "presented" onward, following the Shōjiroku, with reference to it.) This was the beginning of the western barbarians' becoming attached to the court. In the time of Emperor Keikō the Kumaso rebelled, and the emperor personally led a campaign, remaining eight years in the Western Province before returning. He further sent Takeuchi-no-Sukune to inspect the Hokuriku and the eastern provinces, and for the first time the situation of the Emishi was made clear. Before long the Kumaso rebelled again, and he sent his son Prince Yamato-takeru to pacify them. He was then ordered to campaign in the east, and pacified Mutsu, Hitachi, Musashi, Kai, Kōzuke, Shinano, Koshi and other lands; the lands thus pacified totaled twelve circuits. (From "in all" onward, following the Kojiki.) The prince remained four years in the eastern provinces and died on the way back upon reaching Ise. The emperor mourned and grieved greatly, and wishing to tour in person the provinces the prince had pacified, he entered the Tōkai from Ise and returned after a year had passed. The emperor further appointed Hikosashima-ō, a grandson of Prince Toyoki, as Governor-General (Totoku) of the fifteen provinces of the Tōsandō, but he died before reaching his post. His son Mimoro-wake-ō therefore succeeded to the office, and since he practiced good government from early on, both the people and the barbarians gave their hearts to his virtue. In his later years the emperor moved the capital to Ōmi, in order to hold the strategic point of the three roads. Emperor Seimu, building upon his predecessor's legacy, used mountains and rivers as boundaries and fixed the field divisions (senpaku), calling east-west Hitate and north-south Hiyoko, and calling the sunny side of the mountains Kagetomo (Sanyō) and the shaded side Sotomo (San'in); the provincial boundaries were then fixed for the first time, and the common people were at ease. (Source: Nihon Shoki. Note: Considering the matter, the Takahashi-uji Bunsho, cited in the Honchō Getsuryō, records the terms "Hitate Hiyoko" and "Kagetomo Sotomo" in an edict of Emperor Keikō, so presumably the provinces and agata were divided by names already in use.)

¶Now the territory of the Ōyashima is surrounded on all sides by sea; to the northwest it faces Korea and the Mishihase and Mohe, to the northeast lie the Chishima (Kurile Islands), to the southeast it faces the great ocean, and to the southwest lie the Ryūkyū islands, which look across toward the Sui state. Its length is about 3,000 ri and its breadth 180 ri, or by another reckoning up to 360 ri, with an area of 854,640 square ri. The land is long from north to south; the mountain ranges begin in the north and become deepest and most rugged between Mutsu and Dewa, then divide into several ridges that wind westward, forming the boundaries of the three circuits of Tōkai, Tōsandō and Hokuriku. One ridge reaches Shinano and becomes Mount Asama, and reaching the area between Kai and Suruga becomes Mount Fuji, towering over the Eastern Sea; a branching ridge goes out to the south and becomes Mount Amagi, connecting to the island group of the southern sea. One ridge of the Hokuriku reaches the area between Kaga and Etchū and becomes Hakusan and Tateyama, and reaching Ōmi divides into two branches. One goes through Ise and Yamato, gathers at Mount Yoshino, and heads toward Kii. The other goes west and forms the boundary between the two circuits of San'in and Sanyō, reaches the Saikaidō, passes through Chikuzen and Bungo and turns south, becoming the peaks of Aso and Kirishima that coil between Higo and Hyūga, and reaches the island groups of the Ryūkyū and Taiwan. The remaining ridges of Sanyō and Kii become Awaji Island and finally connect to Shikoku, becoming mountains such as Mount Unpenji and Mount Ishizuchi. West of Awaji, between Sanyō and Shikoku, islands lie scattered like go stones; this is called the Inland Sea (Seto Naikai). The rivers of the Tōkai and Hokuriku all rise in the Tōsandō. Those flowing east become the Tone River, those flowing north become the Shinano River, those rushing south are called the Tenryū River, those descending west are called the Kiso River, and the one rising in the lake of Ōmi (Lake Biwa) is called the Yodo River. In San'in there is the Gō River, in the southern sea circuit the Yoshino River, and in the western sea circuit the Chikugo River, all of them large rivers of the country. The area of Musashi, Fusa, Hitachi and Nu (Kōzuke and Shimotsuke) is flat and fertile, truly a land of fertile plains extending a thousand ri. (Following the Enryaku Yochizu, the Shūgaishō and the Dai Nihon Jissokuzu, with reference to them.)

¶Now the Kuni-no-miyatsuko enfeoffed by the Grand Founder numbered eight in all: Yamato and Katsuragi (Note: these two provinces were later attached to Yamato), Ōshikōchi (Note: that is, Kawachi), Yamashiro (Note: that is, Yamashiro), Ise and Suga (Note: later attached to Tōtōmi), and Ki and Usa (Note: later attached to Buzen). There were two Agata-nushi, Takeda and Shiki (Note: these two agata were later attached to Yamato). There was one Agata-no-atai, Tsushima. (Source: Nihon Shoki, Kuji Hongi. Note: that is, Tsushima.) Emperor Kaika enfeoffed the Kuni-no-miyatsuko of Mino-no-michi-no-kuchi (Note: later attached to Mino). Emperor Sujin added eleven: in the east Chichibu (Note: later attached to Musashi) and Shinano (Note: that is, Shinano); in the north Kubiki and Koshi-no-Fukae (Note: these two provinces were later attached to Echigo); in the west Izumo, Iwami, Kibi-no-Naka-no-agata (Note: later attached to Bitchū), Hakuki (Note: now unknown), Hi (Note: that is, Hizen and Higo), and Aso (Note: later attached to Higo); and in the south Hata (Note: later attached to Tosa). Emperor Keikō further established seven provinces: in the east Kai and Kamitsukeno (Note: that is, Kōzuke) and Nasu (Note: later attached to Shimotsuke); in the west Kibi-no-Ana (Note: later attached to Bitchū), Anato (Note: that is, Nagato), Abu (Note: later attached to Nagato), and Ashikita. (Kuji Hongi. Note: later attached to Higo.) Moreover, those whom he enfeoffed as Kuni-no-miyatsuko, Wake, Inaki and Agata-nushi among his imperial sons numbered more than seventy. (Source: Nihon Shoki, Kojiki.) In the time of Emperor Seimu, those newly enfeoffed numbered sixty-four provinces in all: in the central lands (the Home Provinces and neighboring provinces) Yamashiro (Note: that is, Yamashiro. Considering the matter, although the Grand Founder had already established Kuni-no-miyatsuko there, it was established again at this time; presumably there had been abolitions and re-establishments); in the east Iga and Shima (Note: that is, Shima), Owari, Mikawa, Tōtōmi (Note: that is, Tōtōmi), Suruga (Note: that is, Suruga), Iohara (Note: later attached to Suruga), Sagamu (Note: that is, Sagami), Shinaga (Note: later attached to Sagami), Musashi (Note: that is, Musashi), Sue, Umakuta, Kamitsuunakami, Iji, Musha and Kikuma (Note: these six provinces were later attached to Kazusa), Awa (Note: that is, Awa in the east), Niihari, Tsukuba, Naka, Kuji and Taka (Note: these five provinces were later attached to Hitachi), Ōmi (Note: that is, Ōmi), Nukata (Note: later attached to Ōmi), Mino-no-shiri (Note: later attached to Mino), Hida (Note: that is, Hida), Asaka, Omoi, Iku, Someha, Ukita, Shinobu, Shirakawa, Iwase and Iwaki (Note: these nine provinces were later attached to Mutsu); in the north Koshi (Note: that is, Echigo), Mikuni and Tsunuga (Note: these two provinces were later attached to Echizen), Noto (Note: that is, Noto), Imizu (Note: later attached to Etchū), and Sado; in the west Tanba and Tajima (Note: that is, Tajima), Futakata (Note: later attached to Tajima), Inaba (Note: that is, Inaba), Hahaki (Note: that is, Hōki), Harima (Note: that is, Harima), Harima-no-Kamo (Note: later merged into Harima), Kibi-no-Muji (Note: later merged into Bingo), Aki (Note: that is, Aki), Ōshima (Note: later attached to Suō), Tsukushi (Note: that is, Chikuzen and Chikugo), Tsukushi-no-Kumata (Note: later attached to Chikuzen), Toyo (Note: that is, Buzen and Bungo), Kunisaki and Hita (Note: these two provinces were later attached to Bungo), Matsura (Note: later attached to Hizen), Amakusa (Note: later attached to Higo), and Kuzutsu (Note: later attached to Hizen); and in the south Kumano (Note: later attached to Kii), Naga (Note: later attached to Awa), Iyo (Note: that is, Iyo), and Tosa. (Note: that is, Tosa.) Those newly established after that include Kuno in the time of Emperor Chūai (Note: later attached to Tōtōmi), and Izu and Numa in the regency of Empress Jingū. (Note: later attached to Iyo.) Emperor Ōjin further established twenty provinces: in the east Inba and Shimotsuumikami (Note: these two provinces were later attached to Shimōsa), Ibaraki (Note: later attached to Hitachi), and Michinoku-no-Kikuta and Michinoku-no-Kuchi-no-Kife (Note: "Michinoku-no-Kuchi" is written "Michinoku-no-Shiri" in the Kojiki. These two provinces were later attached to Mutsu); in the west Oki (Note: that is, Oki), Akashi (Note: later merged into Harima), Ōku, Kamitsumichi and Mino (Note: these three provinces were later attached to Bizen), Shimotsumichi, Kaya and Kasa (Note: these three provinces were later attached to Bitchū), Suō and Hyūga; and in the south Awa (Note: that is, Awa), Sanuki, Kumi, Oichi and Kazahaya. (Note: these three provinces were later attached to Iyo.) Emperor Nintoku further established seven provinces: in the east Shimotsukeno (Note: that is, Shimotsuke); in the north Kaki (Note: now unknown); in the west Tsunu (Note: later attached to Suō), Matsutsu (Note: now unknown; some say it was attached to Hizen), Ōsumi and Satsuma; and in the south Awaji. (Note: that is, Awaji.) In the time of Emperor Hanzei there was Enuma (Note: later attached to Kaga); in the time of Emperor Ingyō, Wakasa; and in the time of Emperor Yūryaku, Ho (Note: later attached to Mikawa), Kaga (Note: that is, Kaga) and Hakui. (Note: later attached to Noto.) In the time of Emperor Keitai there was Ikinoshima. (Note: that is, Iki.) The provinces established successively, before and after, came to 144 in all. (Kuji Hongi, with reference to the general map of Japan. Note: Considering the matter, this work gives the total in this way, but in fact it does not agree with this number. Details are given in the Treatise on Offices.) Besides these, Kimi, Atai, Wake, Inaki and others were also established in increasing numbers generation after generation. One may suppose that under the system of that time, from the Kuni-no-miyatsuko down to the Agata-nushi there were distinctions of large and small and grades of high and low, (Source: Nihon Shoki, Kojiki) and being linked to and subordinate to one another, each guarded his fief and boundaries and fulfilled the duty of a protective screen. (Source: Nihon Shoki, Kuji Hongi, with reference to the Fudoki of Hitachi, Hizen and Bungo, and the Wamyō Shō.) But their details cannot now be examined, and the rise and fall of their descendants likewise cannot be known. Now those among the Omi and Muraji, the two lineages of Zō, who served at court were all granted fields and estates and were assigned occupational groups (tomobe), and each held a hereditary duty. (Source: Nihon Shoki.) All who ate of the royal land and served royal affairs, above, offered tribute and service, and below, undertook the rites, each serving his ancestral deity and presiding over his people. Large and small were linked and inside and outside protected one another; the land had its lords of generations, and the people their constant sovereigns. This is how successive emperors established the standard for the people. (With reference to the general sense of the Nihon Shoki, Kojiki and Kuji Hongi.)

¶Emperor Chūai journeyed with the empress to Tsunuga, and gave her an edict saying: "This place is a strategic point of sea and land, and is sufficient to control what lies overseas. After I have toured the eight provinces, I intend to build a palace and reside here permanently, and to campaign against Silla." Afterwards he toured southward and resided at the Tokoro-tsu Palace in Kii. At that time the Kumaso rebelled again, and he journeyed to Tsukushi. (From "Chūai" onward, with reference to the Kehi Shrine Records.) A deity spoke through the empress, saying: "If you first take Silla, the Kumaso will submit of themselves." When the emperor died, the empress made her decision and at once campaigned against Silla. The king of Silla sealed up his maps and registers and surrendered, and Koryŏ (Goguryeo) and Paekche, too, hearing the report, submitted; they were called the Western Barbarians in their age and offered tribute and service. From this time the Three Kingdoms of Korea all became subordinate. Emperor Ōjin sent troops to attack Silla, pacified its seven states and made them subordinate to Mimana. He established the Nihon-fu (the Japanese Office), appointed a commander-in-chief of the army, and had him govern the various Korean states and fix their boundaries. In each state he set up an official establishment (miyake) as a protective screen overseas, and if any failed to pay tribute, troops were sent to punish them, either reducing their lands or replacing their rulers. From then on the Western Barbarians kept to their duty as a protective screen for more than two hundred years. Emperor Richū first established Fubito (scribes) in the provinces, to record words and affairs and to communicate the conditions of the four quarters. (Source: Nihon Shoki.) Emperor Ingyō decreed that markers be erected in the provinces and that boundaries be fixed. (Source: Shōjiroku.) Emperor Seinei sent envoys to the provinces to inspect their customs. In the twenty-third year of Emperor Kinmei, Silla destroyed the Mimana Office. On the emperor's death he left a final edict that it be recovered, but this was never accomplished. In the second year of Emperor Sushun, envoys were sent to the three circuits of Tōkai, Tōsandō and Hokuriku to inspect the Emishi and the boundaries of the provinces. From Empress Suiko onward, the court's government gradually declined and discipline became somewhat lax, and those who held power generation after generation as Ōomi and Ōmuraji came to hold fields, estates and people (minbe) in very great numbers. The Omi and Muraji, the two lineages of Zō, likewise vied in annexation and encroached upon one another, so that the rich grew ever richer and the weak could not stand on their own, and lawsuits flourished as a result. Soga no Umako monopolized power, and finally went so far as to request and receive the imperial agata of successive emperors in order to increase his own property. Afterwards Prince Naka-no-Ōe (Emperor Tenji, called Chūsō) put Soga no Iruka to death, assisted Emperor Kōtoku in promulgating the government of the Reform, and unified the country into the system of provinces and districts. (From "unified" onward, following the Hitachi Fudoki and the Enryaku Gishikichō.) Royal granaries (miyake) and all the hereditary groups (kakibe) and field estates obtained by the royal ministers were abolished and turned into public people and public land; the province governed the districts, the district governed the sato (villages), and a Kami (governor) was placed over the province, a Ryō (district chief) over the district, and a Chō (headman) over the sato. For the provincial governors in the eastern provinces, Taifu (senior officials) of good families were appointed. District chiefs were chosen from among the Kuni-no-miyatsuko whose character was upright and who were capable in affairs of the time; roughly fifty households made one sato, districts of forty sato or fewer were Great Districts, those of thirty down to four sato were Middle Districts, and those of three sato were Small Districts, and the system for the capital and the Home Provinces was fixed. The names of the circuits of Tōkai, Tōsandō, San'in, Sanyō, Tsukushi, Nankai and others were also fixed, barrier fortresses were placed along mountains and rivers as boundaries, the provincial governors were made to inspect their boundaries, and maps and registers were made and presented. Where lands bordered on the Emishi, palisades (ki) were placed at strategic points as defenses. From the time the Grand Founder established the Kuni-no-miyatsuko and Agata-nushi until this point was more than 1,300 years; the system changed for the first time, and all under heaven became districts and prefectures (gun-ken).

¶Earlier, in the reign of Empress Suiko, communication was opened with the Sui state, and in the state letter the sovereign styled himself "the Son of Heaven where the sun rises" (Source: "Son of Heaven where the sun rises" follows the Zenrin Kokuhōki, which cites the Kyōseki Gouden Ki and the Book of Sui), or styled himself "Emperor of the East," but a separate name for the country had not yet been established. In the first year of Taika, an edict was proclaimed to the foreign states in which the sovereign for the first time styled himself "Emperor of Japan, Manifest Deity who rules the realm" (Source: Nihon Shoki), and this was made permanent usage. (Ryō no Gige.) Formerly, when the imperial grandson descended to Tsukushi, he surveyed a place where the light of the morning sun and the radiance of the evening sun shine upon one another and built his imperial residence there. (Source: Kojiki.) When Emperor Seimu fixed the boundaries, too, he took the sun in heaven as the warp and weft of the world and fixed the names of the land; his intention was presumably to dwell in the land where the sun rises, to stand at its root, and to have the foreign barbarians overseas look up to its surplus radiance. Thus the name Nihon (Japan) had its germ in very ancient times, and at this point it was newly established as the great title for ruling the realm. (Note: Considering the matter, in which age the great name "Nihon" arose is not clear. In the reign of Emperor Suinin the Nihon Shoki has accounts of the naturalization of Ara-shito, prince of Kara, and Ame-no-Hihoko, prince of Silla, and in the account of the Silla king's surrender at Empress Jingū's campaign against the Three Kingdoms, they all call the imperial court "Nihon." In the reign of Emperor Ōjin the king of Koryŏ (Goguryeo) presented a memorial and likewise called it "the state of Nihon." That is, the foreign barbarians' calling the imperial court Nihon has a long origin already. I append this for reference.) When Empress Saimei took the throne again, Prince Naka-no-Ōe (Chūsō) assisted her, sent Abe-no-Omi Hirafu, the provincial governor of Koshi, to pacify and summon Watarishima, crossed the sea to administer the island barbarians, and attacked and subdued the Mishihase. At that time Silla grew ever more rampant, and, guiding Tang troops, attacked and took Paekche. The empress journeyed with the crown prince to Tsukushi to plan the recovery of Paekche, but the empress happened to die at the temporary palace, and the crown prince decided military affairs while still in mourning dress. But Paekche did not follow our plans and was at last destroyed by Tang, and Koryŏ also fell to Tang. A Dazaifu was therefore established in Tsukushi, the Mizuki (water fortress) and various forts and strongholds were built to guard against a Tang invasion, and eventually friendly relations were established with Tang and anxiety about the west was removed. In the year before his accession the crown prince moved the capital to Ōmi, but from then on he devoted himself solely to administering the east. In the seventh year of Emperor Tenmu, envoys were sent to the island of Tane, and after a year they returned and presented a map of that country. Tane is also called Yaku (Note: "also called" follows the Nantō Shi), and communication was first opened with it in the time of Empress Suiko. At this time its customs and products were made clear, island governors were appointed to administer the neighboring islands, and together with Iki and Tsushima it was made subordinate to the Dazaifu and called the Three Islands. (Source: from "then established" onward, following the Ryō no Shūge and the Ruijū Sandai Kyaku.) In the twelfth year, envoys were sent to Shinano to observe the lay of the land and make and present a map, which was a plan to move the capital, but it was not realized. In the thirteenth year, envoys were sent to Tōkai, Tōsandō, Sanyō, San'in, Nankai and Tsukushi to inspect the administrative performance of the provinces and districts. (Note: Considering the matter, this work already records the Hokurikudō in the time of Emperor Sushun, yet it is not mentioned here, probably owing to omitted text. Considering further, in this work and in the Kojiki, terms such as the Four Circuits, Twelve Circuits and Eight Circuits appear for high antiquity, but the so-called "circuit" there refers to the places to which people went in obedience to a command, and is distinct from the later circuits that govern provinces.) In the ninth year of Empress Jitō, envoys were again sent to the island of Tane to inspect it. At this time there was a Kibi Dazai in Sanyō and an Iyo Sōryō in Nankai. (Source: Nihon Shoki.) In the fourth year of Emperor Monmu there were a Tsukushi Sōryō, a Suō Sōryō and a Kibi Sōryō, each of whom jointly administered several provinces. (Source: Shoku Nihongi.) Under the regulations of the first year of Taihō, fifty households made one sato, and districts were divided into five grades in all. Those of twenty to sixteen sato were Great Districts, those of twelve sato or more were Upper Districts, those of eight or more were Middle Districts, those of four or more were Lower Districts, and those of two or more were Small Districts, with twenty sato as the upper limit for one district. If the number exceeded fifty households, the excess was divided off and attached to a neighboring district; when sixty households were reached, ten households were separated off to form a new sato, and when fewer than ten households remained, they were attached to a large sato as "surplus households" (amari-be). Provinces were divided into four grades in all, called Great, Upper, Middle and Lower. There were fifty-eight provinces and three islands (Source: from "made provinces" onward, with reference to the Shoku Nihongi and the Ryō no Shūge), and the Home Provinces and Seven Circuits were established to govern them. The Seven Circuits were presumably formed by adding the Hokurikudō and renaming Tsukushi as the Saikaidō. Post stations were divided into three grades in all, with the Sanyō as the Great Road, the Tōkai and Tōsandō as Middle Roads, and the others as Small Roads. One station was placed every thirty ri, and where the terrain was steep or there was no water or grass, they were placed as convenience required. Ise, Mino and Echizen were designated Barrier Provinces, the three barriers of Suzuka, Fuwa and Arachi were established with the provincial governors in charge of them, and a military corps (gundan) was established in each province. At every place where a barrier was to be placed and guarded, soldiers were stationed, and beacons were placed at intervals of forty ri. Where separated by hills, they were placed as convenient so that they could see one another. At ferry crossings on main roads that could not be forded, boats were placed to carry people across. Ferries, bridges and roads were repaired according to the boundaries, and where there were embankments, the provincial and district governors inspected them and sent people to repair them. (Ryō no Gige.) In the third year, envoys were sent to the Seven Circuits to inspect administrative performance. In the second year of Wadō, envoys were sent to the two circuits of Tōkai and Tōsandō to examine the barriers and inspect customs. In the fourth year, post stations of the capital pavilion type (Totei-eki) were placed in the four provinces of Yamashiro, Kawachi, Settsu and Iga. (Note: "Totei" is written "Yūtei" in some texts.) In the sixth year it was decreed as follows: "The names of districts and sato in the provinces of the Home Provinces and Seven Circuits shall all use two characters, and characters of good meaning must always be chosen. For the silver, copper, pigments, animals and plants that they produce, record the items in detail. Record and report on the fertility or poverty of the soil, the mountains, rivers and fields, the origins of place names, what the old people relate, and strange matters heard from old times." The compilation of the Fudoki indeed began here. (From "sixth year" onward, with reference to the Engishiki, the Fusō Ryakki and the Sengaku Man'yōshō.) In the eighth year, the Emishi of Mutsu and Dewa and the people of the southern islands Amami, Yaku, Tokan, Shingaku, Kumi and others came to court and presented goods for the New Year's congratulations. By the Tenpyō era the Dazaifu sent officials to the southern islands and had markers erected on each island recording the island's name and the distances to its harbors, for the convenience of navigation. In the third year of Yōrō, Inspectors (Azechi) were first appointed, and provincial governors were made to jointly administer two, or three or four, provinces. Under that system Ise administered Iga and Shima; Tōtōmi administered Suruga, Izu and Kai; Hitachi administered Awa, Kazusa and Shimōsa; Mino administered Owari, Mikawa and Shinano; Musashi administered Sagami, Kōzuke and Shimotsuke; Echizen administered Noto, Etchū and Echigo; Tanba administered Tango, Tajima and Inaba; Izumo administered Hōki and Iwami; Harima administered Bizen, Mimasaka, Bitchū and Awaji; Iyo administered Awa, Sanuki and Tosa; and Bingo administered Aki and Suō; and they inspected for wrongdoing and assessed administrative achievements. Later a Home Provinces Inspector was added, and they were named the Eight-Circuit Inspectors (Hachidō Junsatsushi). In the fourth year, the southern islands again came to court, and those granted rank received differing grades. In the first year of Jinki, the Emishi of Mutsu rebelled and killed the Daijō Saeki-no-Koyamaro. The emperor ordered Fujiwara-no-Ason Umakai to campaign against them, and also sent Ono-no-Ason Ushikai to pacify Dewa. In this year the Taga Palisade was first built as a defense against frontier raids. (From "in this year" onward, following the Taga Castle Stele.) Before this, when the Emishi rebelled troops were sent to attack them, and when they were pacified the troops were merely withdrawn, with only a few palisades such as Nutari and Iwafune. (Note: "Nutari" follows the Nihon Shoki.) In the second year, sato were renamed gō and villages (mura) were renamed sato. The gō-sato system was thus fixed for the first time. (Ryō no Shūge, with reference to the Izumo Fudoki.) In the time of Empress Genmei, the Dewa Palisade was newly established and later called the Office for Subduing the Barbarians (Chōteki-sho). In the fifth year of Wadō, the province of Dewa was further established, people were transferred and settled there, and it was set beside the Mutsu garrison to administer the two circuits. The nature of the captive barbarians (ifu) was to swarm like bees and ants; when attacked they fled to mountains and marshes, and when pressure eased they invaded deep and plundered. Therefore forts and palisades were first established and made to respond to one another in order to prevent clashes. In the fifth year of Tenpyō, the Dewa Palisade was moved to Akita District and later repaired and made into a castle. In the ninth year, Ōno-no-Azumabito, the Commander of the Pacification Office (Chinju Shōgun), noting that the route between Mutsu and Dewa was roundabout, requested that a castle be built in Ogachi village and a direct road opened. Troops were sent out from the Taga Palisade to the Ōmuro post station in Dewa, opened a road of several tens of ri, advanced as far as Mount Hirahoko and turned back. Later the Ogachi Castle was established, and further the Monou Palisade and the Koreharu Castle were built to plan advances and punitive campaigns. Thus castles and palisades were set at nearly all strategic places, and for the first time the convenience of defense was obtained. The people of the neighboring provinces were made to farm and raise silkworms as convenient, and people were happily settled there to serve as frontier defenses. In the Hōki era the Emishi of Mutsu rose again in disorder. In the eleventh year, troops were sent into the rebel lands and the Kakubetsu Castle was built to guard the Isawa region. At that time Isawa lay east of the Koromo River, in the deep interior of the Emishi, and was the place hardest to conquer. When Emperor Kanmu took the throne, he made Ōtomo-no-Otomaro and Sakanoue-no-Tamuramaro Seii Taishōgun (Barbarian-Subduing Generals), and had them campaign thoroughly against the Emishi in turn. Otomaro pacified seventy-five settlements, and Tamuramaro also attacked the interior and opened up a vast area, crossing the Koromo River to the north and building Isawa Castle. He further conquered more than 160 ri to the north and built Shiwa Castle, with the northwest connecting to Tsugaru District. (Nihon Kiryaku, with reference to the Nihon Kōki, the Ruijū Sandai Kyaku and the maps of Mutsu Province.) He drove the foreign peoples into the desolate frontier, gathered in all the barbarian lands of the Tōsandō, and made the sea the boundary of the country. (Preface to the Ezo Shi.) After this the Emishi withdrew from view, Watarishima came under the jurisdiction of Dewa, and in time Akita Castle was abolished and made into a district and the office was moved to the Horoba (Kawabe) Office. The emperor devoted himself to administering distant regions, and the scale of his enterprise grew wide; he once abolished the three barriers and had a new road opened in the Nankaidō. (Shoku Nihongi, Nihon Kiryaku.) In the second year of Kōnin, remnant rebels in Mutsu rose in disorder, and Funya-no-Ason Watamaro was sent to campaign against them; he pacified them completely, and anxiety on the frontier was first settled. The next year Isawa Castle was made the Chinjufu (Pacification Office), and officers from general downward were established. (Nihon Kōki. From "next year" onward, with reference to the Wamyō Shō and the Kenmu Second Year Record.) Mutsu lay at a strategic point on the frontier, and because its land was exceptionally broad, the provincial office and the pacification office were set side by side to govern both the people and the barbarians. (Shokugenshō.) Facing the Dazaifu east to west, it awed and controlled the interior of the country. Before this the Inspectors had been abolished, but only in Mutsu they were retained, jointly administering Dewa, with the provincial governor and the garrison commander always holding concurrent office (Shoku Nihongi), so that particular weight was given to the post. (Nihon Kōki, Ruijū Sandai Kyaku.) In the early Tenchō era of Emperor Junna, the office of governor of the island of Tane was abolished and the island was made subordinate to Ōsumi. (Ruijū Sandai Kyaku.) Emperor Ninmyō decreed: "Among the names of provinces, districts, gō, mountains and rivers throughout the realm, all those that conflict with the sovereign's personal name shall be changed." (Shoku Nihon Kōki.) In the time of Emperor Yōzei, the barbarian captives of Dewa rose in disorder, and Fujiwara-no-Yasunori was sent as acting governor (Gon-no-kami) to pacify and summon them. On arriving at his post, Yasunori explained the principles of obedience and rebellion and displayed his authority. The captive barbarians submitted gladly, the northern frontier was greatly pacified, and the Emishi of Watarishima who had not submitted in earlier reigns all became attached to the court. (Sandai Jitsuroku, Biography of Fujiwara-no-Yasunori.) In the third year of Enchō, the provinces were ordered to present their Fudoki. (Ruijū Fusen Shō, Chōya Gunsai.) The Ministry of Popular Affairs (Minbushō) also had map registers (zuchō) that recorded in detail the boundary markers of the provinces and districts. (Shokugenshō.)

¶Now after the Taika reform, the provinces of the Five Home Provinces and Seven Circuits were abolished and re-established as occasion required. In the Tenpyō era they numbered sixty-one provinces and three islands; in the first year of Tenpyō Hōji three provinces were added, and in the fourteenth year of Kōnin one province was added. By the first year of Tenchō, Tane was abolished, and once the number was fixed at sixty-six provinces and two islands there was no further change. (Nihon Shoki, Kuji Hongi, Shoku Nihongi, Engishiki, Wamyō Shō.) However, their districts and gō increased and decreased from time to time in accordance with increases and decreases in households and population. (Ryō no Gige, Shoku Nihongi.) In the Enryaku era there were 555 districts, 4,012 gō and 12,036 sato. (Ritsusho Zanpen. Note: This book was transmitted at the Tōnan'in in the Southern Capital (Nara); its beginning and end are missing and its author is unknown. Since the work contains entries for the first and seventeenth years of Enryaku and so on, its date can be known.) Afterwards the districts increased by 35 (Engishiki) and the gō increased by 26. (Wamyō Shō. Note: Considering the matter, the gō names recorded in the Kōzanji text total 3,735, which does not agree with this work. I append this as reference, awaiting later investigation.) In the fifth year, a set of regulations was promulgated dividing the provinces of the Five Home Provinces and Seven Circuits into three classes: Near, Middle and Far Provinces. The Home Provinces, Iga, Ise, Shima, Owari, Mikawa, Ōmi, Mino, Wakasa, Tanba, Tango, Tajima, Inaba, Harima, Mimasaka, Bizen, Kii and Awaji were made the Near Provinces; Tōtōmi, Suruga, Izu, Kai, Hida, Shinano, Echizen, Kaga, Noto, Etchū, Hōki, Izumo, Bitchū, Bingo, Awa and Sanuki the Middle Provinces; and Sagami, Musashi, Awa, Kazusa, Shimōsa, Hitachi, Kōzuke, Shimotsuke, Mutsu, Dewa, Echigo, Sado, Iwami, Oki, Aki, Suō, Nagato, Iyo, Tosa and the nine provinces of the Saikaidō the Far Provinces. The four provinces of Mutsu, Dewa, Sado and Oki, and the two islands of Iki and Tsushima, were designated frontier strongholds (henyō). (Engishiki.) In the Enryaku era, an edict was issued to the capital region, the Home Provinces and the provinces of the Seven Circuits to suspend and abolish the soldiers and to reduce labor services. However, Mutsu, Dewa, Sado and the Dazaifu, being in each case at frontier strongholds where preparations could not be dispensed with, were to keep their soldiers as before. (Ruijū Sandai Kyaku.)

¶Generally, public and private travel to and from the southwestern provinces was mostly by boat. (Ruijū Sandai Kyaku, Engishiki.) The lands of the northeast were broad and rugged (Nihon Shoki) and were best suited to water and grass. At that time pastures were established at some sixty places or more, of which those in the eastern provinces accounted for forty-five (Engishiki); they produced many fine horses, and the people were accustomed to riding hard. For this reason later ages had the saying "boats in the west, horses in the east," and the customs of the people of the eastern provinces were fierce, valuing spirit and honor. A proverb says: "The eight provinces of Bandō can match the great armies of the realm; the warriors of Kamakura can withstand the eight provinces." (Genpei Jōsuiki, Heike Monogatari.) For this reason the court constantly drafted men of that region as palace guards and took care to treat them generously. In campaigning against the Emishi and guarding the western frontier, too, troops were taken solely from there. (Shoku Nihongi, Tōdaiji and Shōsōin documents, Man'yōshū.) Folk songs and ballads were collected in order to gauge the people's hearts. (Man'yōshū.) This is how the sage sovereigns of earlier ages paid heed to the eastern provinces. When court government fell into decay and slackness and estates (shōen) rose in great numbers, the system of districts and gō began to collapse. Powerful commoners in various places entrusted themselves to the powerful and noble, annexed villages, vied in establishing the names of estates and made themselves estate officials (shōji), or privately styled themselves lords. Buddhist clergy followed suit, occupying land and nurturing private followings; their power grew somewhat strong and they ceased to obey the affairs of the province. The country was thus divided, and for the most part occupied by great families and great clans. (Ruijū Sandai Kyaku, Honchō Monzui, Chōya Gunsai, Chūyūki, Taiki.) The lands of Bandō and Ōu were nearly the foremost examples of this. (Sonpi Bunmyaku, Mutsu Waki, Gosannen Gunki.) In the time of Emperor Suzaku, when Taira-no-Masakado rose in rebellion, powerful families responded to him, and the court trembled in alarm and was unable to suppress it. Taira-no-Sadamori and Fujiwara-no-Hidesato each led troops and destroyed him. (Nihon Kiryaku, Fusō Ryakki, Shōmonki.) Originally, when the court selected the provincial and district governors of the eastern provinces, it constantly chose persons skilled in the martial arts (Gōke Shidai); members of the Taira clan were often chosen, and their descendants remained and settled in those lands, their lineages prospered, and they became rather strong clans. (Taira Genealogy, Sonpi Bunmyaku.) By this time the prestige of Hidesato's name had also risen somewhat, and many of his descendants in Bandō were appointed garrison commanders. (Sonpi Bunmyaku.) Originally, those whom the court appointed as provincial and district governors were mostly of imperial or divine descent; those who transferred their registration to the land, occupied estates, and, when the military corps were abolished, took up arms and engaged in military service were all their descendants. The so-called "residents" (jūnin), that is, military houses and warriors (bushi), are these. (With reference to the general sense of the Ruijū Sandai Kyaku, Genpei Jōsuiki, Sonpi Bunmyaku and Shoke Keizu San.) In the Chōgen era, Taira-no-Tadatsune rebelled and held the two provinces of Kazusa and Shimōsa. Minamoto-no-Yorinobu, together with his son Yoriyoshi, led the troops of Bandō, attacked and pacified him. (Mutsu Waki, Konjaku Monogatari.) After this, the Taira and Fujiwara clans in the eastern provinces gradually became attached to the Minamoto. (Sonpi Bunmyaku, Azuma Kagami.) In the time of Emperor Go-Reizei, Abe-no-Yoritoki, chieftain of the barbarian captives of Mutsu, rebelled holding the six districts north of Isawa. Yoriyoshi, together with his son Yoshiie, attacked him and after attack and defense over successive years at last destroyed him. At this time Kiyohara-no-Takenori, chieftain of the barbarian captives of Dewa, followed Yoriyoshi and for his merit was appointed Commander of the Pacification Office (Chinju-fu Shōgun). (Mutsu Waki.) His descendants lived generation after generation between Mutsu and Dewa, and the clan was especially prosperous. In the time of Emperor Horikawa, when Takenori's son Takehira and grandson Iehira and others rose in disorder, Yoshiie sent out his private troops and attacked them. At this time Fujiwara-no-Kiyohira, as a descendant of Hidesato, had lived in Mutsu for generations (from "Fujiwara" onward, with reference to the Sonpi Bunmyaku), and he joined Yoshiie in attacking Takehira and in the end came to hold the six districts. (Azuma Kagami.) Kiyohira's son Motohira became Ōryōshi of Ōu (Kojidan, Azuma Kagami, Sonpi Bunmyaku), and Motohira's son Hidehira was appointed Commander of the Pacification Office. (Gyokukai, Azuma Kagami.) The clan was strong and prosperous, held over a hundred thousand troops, and its prestige extended to the northern bounds. (Azuma Kagami.) Now the region of Ōu is broad and rugged, its soil fertile and its products abundant. (Biography of Fujiwara-no-Yasunori, Azuma Kagami.) It was a place that the successive courts exhausted their strength in administering before it finally returned to the register of the realm. (Shoku Nihongi, Nihon Kōki, Nihon Kiryaku.) But once the regent and chancellor houses monopolized government, because it lay far from the capital they regarded it as a foreign land and left it wholly to local strongmen without imposing restraint. (Taiki, Azuma Kagami.) And whenever an incident arose, they employed the warriors of Bandō, entrusted it to generals of hereditary military houses and let them monopolize campaigns, paying no attention to merit and fault, punishment and reward. (Mutsu Waki, Gosannen Gunki.) As a result a place that was among the foremost strategic strongholds in the country was changed into a land where heroes used their martial valor, and the authority over the troops and horses of Bandō finally passed to the Minamoto. In the Kantoku era of Emperor Go-Suzaku, an edict halted the establishment of new estates. Emperor Go-Reizei also issued a renewed prohibition, but could not stop the trend. (Kanchūki.) When Emperor Go-Sanjō took the throne, he conceived the resolve to correct this with indignation, but died before he could carry it halfway through. (Fusō Ryakki, Hyakurenshō, Kojidan.) When the two retired emperors Shirakawa and Toba heard and decided government affairs in the cloistered court, they established imperial estates (go-shō) to support themselves, and high and low followed suit and pursued private profit single-mindedly. Estates spread almost across the whole realm, until lands that paid no taxes and delivered no goods accounted for nine in ten, and the government of the provinces and districts could do nothing. (Hyakurenshō, Jinnō Shōtōki.) In the time of Emperor Sutoku, Taira-no-Tadamori became governor of Bizen and had the merit of capturing robbers, and his reputation spread somewhat in the southwest. (Chōya Gunsai, Chūyūki.) His son Kiyomori successively served as governor of Aki and Harima and became Dazai Daini (Senior Assistant Governor-General of Dazaifu). (Kugyō Bunin, Genpei Jōsuiki.) He once pacified a disturbance in Hyūga, and the people of the western sea gradually came to submit to the Taira.

¶Earlier, in the Kashō era, Kiyomori's grandfather Masamori had attacked Minamoto-no-Yoshichika with merit. (Hyakurenshō, Chūyūki.) Yoshichika was a son of Yoshiie. (Sonpi Bunmyaku, Chūyūki.) Through this the Taira at last won the hearts of the people of the western provinces and came to rival the Minamoto. At that time the powerful heroes of the provinces who held land and arms each nurtured house sons (ieno-ko) and retainers (rōtō) and vied for supremacy, relying on bow and horse. The two clans of Minamoto and Taira stood towering in confrontation, east and west. (Azuma Kagami, Genpei Jōsuiki, Jinnō Shōtōki.) The Fujiwara had originally monopolized government generation after generation and held many estates, their wealth surpassing that of the imperial house, but they merely indulged in extravagance (Nihon Kiryaku, Gukanshō, Eiga Monogatari) and left military matters wholly to the two clans of Minamoto and Taira. (Konjaku Monogatari, Chūyūki.) With the disturbances of Hōgen and Heiji the Taira rose greatly and the Minamoto declined. Kiyomori, by his merit, rose to Grand Minister (Daijō-daijin) and took hold of government; he first confiscated the Minamoto estates and encroached upon and seized the lands of cloistered courts and palaces and of royal ministers. (Gyokukai, Azuma Kagami, Genpei Jōsuiki.) Many of his clan held key posts, their private villages came to exceed nearly half the country, and their arrogance, haughtiness and violence were no longer comparable to those of the Fujiwara. (Genpei Jōsuiki, Heike Monogatari.) In the fourth year of Jishō, Minamoto-no-Yoritomo, upholding the edict of Prince Mochihito, raised troops in the eastern provinces in the name of punishing the Taira. The eastern household men (ke'nin) who had formerly belonged to his ancestors vied to be first in coming to join him, and he settled at Kamakura, established the Samurai-dokoro (Office of Retainers) and summoned and gathered his old retainers. Minamoto-no-Yoshinaka also raised troops in the Hokuriku and advanced into the capital. The Taira could not hold out and fled west, upholding Emperor Antoku. This was relying on the fact that their forefathers had once pacified and governed the Western Province. Before long Yoritomo sent his younger brother Yoshitsune to destroy Yoshinaka, while he himself based himself in the Kantō to secure the foundation, and privately sent household men to guard strategic points. He then finally requested a cloistered edict (insen) to attack the Taira, and the Taira were annihilated in the western sea. (Azuma Kagami, Genpei Jōsuiki.) In the first year of Bunji, Yoritomo petitioned that "in all the provinces of the Home Provinces and Seven Circuits, Shugo and Jitō be established, with household men of his kin appointed to them, and that he himself serve as Sō-jitō (General Steward of the realm) to govern them." The court deliberation permitted it, but the stated purpose was to suppress robbers and guard against rebellion, while in reality it was to gather the great authority of the realm. (Azuma Kagami, Hōryaku Kanki.) Thereupon the provincial offices (kokuga) could no longer control their provinces, the estate proprietors (ryōke) could no longer monopolize their estates, and the authority over land all passed to Kamakura. Those called Shugo and Jitō each held castle towns and encroached upon and occupied neighboring lands. The provincial capitals and district offices at last fell into disuse, the system of gō and sato fell into disorder accordingly, and the realm gradually came again to take on the shape of feudalism. (With reference to the Azuma Kagami, Jōkyū Ki, Jinnō Shōtōki, Taiheiki, the Tajima Ōtabumi, and the land registers of Bungo, Hyūga, Ōsumi and Satsuma.) The southern islands had originally been subordinate to Ōsumi (Ruijū Sandai Kyaku) and were later placed under Satsuma's jurisdiction. (Genpei Jōsuiki, Heike Monogatari.) Yoritomo requested to attack Kikaigashima, but the court deliberation did not permit it, so he eventually attacked and subdued it privately, and the southern islands were all pacified. At this time Fujiwara-no-Hidehira died, and his son Yasuhira succeeded him, held the lands spanning Ōu, closed the barriers and defended himself. Yoritomo likewise sent out troops privately and attacked him; Tachibana-no-Sanetoshi, a man of Mutsu who was well versed in the geography, was made to prepare a map, and when ordered, clarified the lay of the land, Jitō were fixed, districts were divided to reward meritorious service in war, and Watarishima was made a place of exile. Then an Ezo Kanrei (Governor of the Ezo) was established to keep the barbarians in order. (From "established" onward, following the Hōryaku Kanki and the Suwa Shrine Engi Ekotoba.) The northeast was entirely pacified. Before this, Yoritomo had sent his generals and soldiers to guard the palace gates, and had established the Chinzei Bugyō to control the southwest. Thus none, whether within or beyond the seas, failed to submit to his might, and the great trend of the realm was transformed from this time. In the third year of Kenkyū he was at last appointed Seii Taishōgun, but no separate Pacification Office was established. This was because the weight of the office was respected. (From "no separate" onward, following the Shokugenshō.) In the time of Emperor Juntoku, when Yoritomo's line came to an end, Hōjō Yoshitoki, though a vassal of a vassal, set up a person of a different surname and controlled the warriors. (Azuma Kagami.) Retired Emperor Go-Toba thought: "Now that the Minamoto have come to an end, the authority of the imperial house can be recovered at a single stroke," and drafted troops from the Kinai and from Owari westward to attack Kamakura. Someone remonstrated: "The east is broad in land and numerous in troops. If we rashly start an affair and are defeated once, the calamity will be immeasurable," but the retired emperor did not listen. Yoshitoki ordered his sons and younger kinsmen to lead a great army against Kyoto, which in the end brought about the calamity of three emperors being sent into exile, and the warriors became ever more arbitrary. (Azuma Kagami, Jōkyū Ki, Hōryaku Kanki.) Before this, Temüjin (Genghis Khan) of the Mongols had taken Yanjing and finally destroyed Jin, and with Khubilai the lands of Song were annexed. (Yuan Shi.) In the Bun'ei era they raided Tsushima and invaded Chikuzen, but were driven back at once. (Kantō Hyōjōden, Hachiman Gudōkun.) In the first year of Kenji the Mongols again sent an envoy to present a state letter, but Hōjō Tokimune had him beheaded and sent no reply. (Teiō Hennenki, Kantō Hyōjōden.) In the fourth year of Kōan the Mongols invaded in great force, but were once more greatly defeated. (Hōryaku Kanki, Hachiman Gudōkun.) It is said that of the hundred thousand Mongol troops only three returned alive. (Yuan Shi.) After this they never invaded again. Emperor Go-Daigo, taking up the aims of Retired Emperor Go-Toba, planned to recover the great authority, sent several close retainers to the eastern provinces and secretly allied with warriors. (From "sent" onward, following the Masukagami.) Hōjō Takatoki raised troops, violated the palace and removed the emperor to Oki. Loyalist warriors then rose vying in all quarters. Nitta Yoshisada raised a righteous army in Kōzuke and destroyed Kamakura in one stroke. Takatoki submitted to execution, and the country returned to unity. The emperor first raised his meritorious retainers to be provincial governors and Shugo, ordered his sons to pacify the Kantō and Ōu, and sought to restrain the warriors by abolishing the designation "household men." But the warriors harbored resentment, and many thought of disorder. Ashikaga Takauji and Tadayoshi had always harbored disloyal intentions and hoped to dominate the realm by following the old stratagem of Yoritomo. Having once submitted to the court and overthrown the Hōjō, at this point they secretly allied with the warriors to fulfill their ambitions. But the court did not perceive it, and ordered Prince Moriyoshi to go out to Kamakura and pacify it, with Tadayoshi made governor of Sagami to assist him. (From "with Tadayoshi" onward, following the Kugyō Bunin.) Before long, when the remnants of the Hōjō rebelled, the court's army attacked them without success, and the rebels advanced and took the capital. Just then the Commander-in-Chief of the Pacification Office (Chinju-fu Taishōgun) Minamoto-no-Akiie led the troops of Ōu in as reinforcements and at last a victory was gained. Takauji fled west. Before this, Takauji had secretly allied with the powerful families of the western provinces to make them his partisans. (From "before this" onward, following the Shimazu Documents.) He therefore gathered the troops of the western sea circuit, the southern sea circuit and San'in, and advanced by land and sea to violate the capital. The emperor journeyed to Mount Hiei, and Takauji set up an emperor of the Northern Court to oppose him. The emperor's palanquin at last moved to Yamato, and he based himself at the temporary palace at Yoshino. Takauji opened a shogunate in the capital to guard against the imperial army and appointed his son Motouji as Kantō Kanrei. (From "appointed his son" onward, following the Kitsuregawa Genealogy.) Thus securing his base, he allied ever more with the warriors and plundered all quarters, granting several provinces each to his generals and soldiers and still having them called Shugo. (Taiheiki.) Originally, when Yoritomo established the Shugo, their duties did not go beyond the Three Great Offenses (daibon sanjō), and matters such as taxation were left wholly to the Jitō. (Jōei Shikimoku.) With Takauji, he strove to win the hearts of the people, was not bound by laws and regulations, and entrusted this to the Shugo. From this time the Shugo treated the Jitō like slaves, seized estates here and there and made them their own possessions, and rivalry and seizure among local strongholds became almost beyond control. (Taiheiki, Kenmu Shikimoku Tsuika, Meitoku Ki, Baishōron.)

¶From the time Emperor Kōtoku fixed the system until this point was about seven hundred years, and the system of provinces and districts collapsed entirely. Ever since the Grand Founder fixed the capital, because the configuration of the realm was heavy in the east and light in the west, one could control the southwest but it was difficult to campaign against the northeast. (Nihon Shoki, Shoku Nihongi.) That an eastern army took the capital was in the disturbance of Juei and in the incidents of Jōkyū and Kenmu. That a western army achieved its aims was only in Takauji's rebellion. (With reference to the general sense of the Nihon Shoki, Azuma Kagami, Genpei Jōsuiki and Taiheiki.) For this reason, when a military leader controlled the country, basing himself in the northeast was always what the realm valued; this was presumably because of the grandeur of the lay of that land and the strength of its troops and horses. From roughly the Engen era onward the court merely held the southern mountains (Yoshino), and the lands that its rule reached were no more than a few provinces: Yamato, Kawachi, Kii and Iga. Yet for as long as fifty years it solemnly upheld the Sacred Regalia and issued commands to all quarters. The loyal armies of the four quarters, though defeated, rose again, and the Ashikaga, through three generations, could never achieve their aims. (Taiheiki, Kaeishi Sandaiki.) In the ninth year of Genchū under Emperor Go-Kameyama, Ashikaga Yoshimitsu urged the emperor to sue for peace with the emperor of the Northern Court, and the emperor consented. The palanquin returned to the capital and the Regalia were passed to Emperor Go-Komatsu. The country was thus unified, but all the great authority of the realm passed to the Ashikaga, and the imperial house declined all the more.

¶The Capital (Keishi)

¶In remote antiquity, the place where the Heavenly Ancestor (Amaterasu-Ōmikami) dwelt was called Takamagahara. One may suppose that its terrain was the finest and that from there she illuminated and governed all four quarters. When the imperial grandson descended and governed the Western Province, he likewise fixed his palace site at a place of fine terrain, and for three generations resided at the Takachiho Palace in Hyūga. (From "three generations" onward, with reference to the Kojiki.) The places where palace enclosures stood were in high antiquity generally called the imperial capital (kōto). With the Taika Reform this was fixed as Keishi (the capital). From the time the Grand Founder made his capital in the Central Land (Yamato), it was moved from generation to generation and was not a fixed settlement, but it always lay within the bounds of Ōyamato Toyoakizu Island. The Grand Founder fixed his capital at Kashihara and called it the Unebi Kashihara Palace. (For palace names, with reference to the Kojiki.) For the eleven generations after him, all resided in Yamato. These were the Katsuragi Takaoka Palace of Emperor Suizei, the Katashio Ukiana Palace of Emperor Annei, the Karu-no-Magari-no-Oka Palace of Emperor Itoku (Note: the Kojiki has "Sakai-oka Palace"), the Waki-no-ue Ikegokoro Palace of Emperor Kōshō (Note: the Kojiki has "Waki-no-ue Palace"), the Muro Akitsushima Palace of Emperor Kōan, the Kuroda Iorido Palace of Emperor Kōrei, the Karu-no-Sakaihara Palace of Emperor Kōgen, the Kasuga Izakawa Palace of Emperor Kaika, the Shiki Mizugaki Palace of Emperor Sujin, the Makimuku Tamaki Palace of Emperor Suinin (Note: the Kojiki has "Shiki Tamagaki Palace"), and the Makimuku Hishiro Palace of Emperor Keikō. In his later years Emperor Keikō moved to Ōmi and called his palace the Shiga Takaanaho Palace. Emperor Seimu also resided there. (From "Seimu" onward, following the Kojiki.) Emperor Chūai resided at the Kehi Palace in Tsunuga (Note: now Tsuruga District, Echizen), the Tokoro-tsu Palace in Kii (Note: now Nagusa District, Kii), also the Toyora Palace in Anato (Note: now Toyoura District, Nagato), and the Kashii Palace in Tsukushi (Note: now Kasuya District, Chikuzen), all of which were temporary residences. Emperor Ōjin made his capital in Yamato and resided at the Karushima Akira Palace. ("Karushima" follows the Kojiki.) Emperor Nintoku resided in Naniwa, at the Takatsu Palace (Note: now Ikuno District, Settsu). Emperor Richū resided in Yamato, at the Iware Wakazakura Palace. Emperor Hanzei resided in Kawachi, at the Tajihi Shibagaki Palace (Note: now Tajihi District). Emperor Ingyō also resided in Yamato, at the Tō-tsu-Asuka Palace. (From "Ingyō" onward, following the Kojiki.) The fifteen generations after this were also in Yamato. These were the Isonokami Anaho Palace of Emperor Ankō, the Hatsuse Asakura Palace of Emperor Yūryaku, the Iware Mikuri Palace of Emperor Seinei, the Chika-tsu-Asuka Yatsuri Palace of Emperor Kenzō, the Isonokami Hirotaka Palace of Emperor Ninken, the Hatsuse Namiki Palace of Emperor Buretsu, the Iware Tamaho Palace of Emperor Keitai, the Magari-no-Kanahashi Palace of Emperor Ankan, the Hinokuma Iorino Palace of Emperor Senka, the Shikishima Kanasashi Palace of Emperor Kinmei (Note: the Kojiki has "Shikishima Ōmiya"), the Kudara-no-Ōi Palace of Emperor Bidatsu (Note: now Nishikori District, Kawachi) and the Osada Sakitama Palace (Note: the Kojiki has "Osada Palace"), the Iware-no-Ikenobe Namitsuki Palace of Emperor Yōmei (Note: the Kojiki has "Ikenobe Palace"), the Kurahashi Shibagaki Palace of Emperor Sushun (Note: "Shibagaki Palace" follows the Kojiki), the Toyura Palace and Ofuri-da Palace of Empress Suiko, the Asuka Okamoto Palace of Emperor Jomei, and the Asuka Itabuki Palace of Empress Kōgyoku. Emperor Kōtoku resided in Naniwa and called his palace the Nagara Toyosaki Palace (Note: now Ikuno District, Settsu). Empress Saimei again resided in Yamato, calling her palace the Nochi-no-Asuka Okamoto Palace, and later built a temporary palace in Tsukushi and called it the Asakura Tachibana-no-Hironiwa Palace (Note: now Jōza District, Chikuzen). Prince Naka-no-Ōe (Chūsō) moved to Ōmi and resided at the Ōtsu Palace. Emperor Kōbun (Prince Ōtomo) also resided there. (Note: now Shiga District.) Emperor Tenmu resided in Yamato and called his palace the Asuka Kiyomihara Palace. Empress Jitō resided at the Fujiwara Palace (Nihon Shoki), and Emperor Monmu followed her in this. Empress Genmei first built the Heijō Palace, and the six sovereigns Genshō, Shōmu, Kōken, the Deposed Emperor (Junnin), Shōtoku and Kōnin successively resided there. (Shoku Nihongi.) The capital city spanned the two districts of Soe-no-kami and Soe-no-shimo (Sandai Jitsuroku), with the palace enclosure at its center, about eight chō square, and with Left and Right capitals on either side; it had jō (avenues), bō (wards) and chō (blocks), laid out in order like a go board. (Saidaiji Tahata Mokuroku, Nakajō-shi Jissoku Nanto-zu.)

¶Emperor Kanmu moved the capital to Nagaoka in Yamashiro (Nihon Kiryaku. Note: it lies in Otokuni District), but soon surveyed a site in the village of Uda and launched great construction works. When the palace was completed, it was named Heian-kyō. (Nihon Kiryaku, Teiō Hennenki.) The site spans the two districts of Kadono and Atago, with the Kamo River on the left and the Kadono River on the right, surrounded by mountains on the east, west and north, and open, flat and broad to the south; its configuration is grand and its landscape beautiful, and it may truly be called a great capital unchanging for ten thousand generations. (Yamashiro Shi, Keijō-zu.) Its palaces and gate towers, the offices of its government bureaus, and the system of jō and ri of the capital city were also greatly increased in scale compared with earlier ages. (Sandai Jitsuroku, Honchō Monzui, Shūgaishō, Keijō-zu.) Details appear in the Treatise on Rites and Music. In later ages there was a great deal of construction, from the residences of court nobles to shrines and Buddhist temples, too many to list, so they are not recorded here in detail. When the imperial capital was built in the Enryaku era, its scale was grand and the wealth expended was very great, but this was meant to endure a temporary hardship in order to establish a foundation for ten thousand generations. People gathered from all quarters and goods were abundant, and the prosperity of the capital was unprecedented in past or present. (Drawing on the general sense of the Nihon Kōki, Nihon Kiryaku, Honchō Monzui and other books.) But once maternal relatives came to take government into their own hands, they vied in arrogance and extravagance and competed in building residences, so much so that they were made to resemble the imperial palace. (Kojidan, Eiga Monogatari.) Offices and stipends became hereditary (Kugyō Bunin), they coveted wealth and rank and indulged in pleasures (Eiga Monogatari), clothing and furnishings grew more luxurious by the day (Ima Kagami), and the palace enclosure gradually fell into ruin. In the reign of the sovereign, the residence became like a temporary dwelling (general sense of the Chūyūki, Fusō Ryakki and Hyakurenshō), high and low alike sank into idle ease, lewd customs spread through the world, and the spirit of shame fell to the ground. (Shunki, Shōyūki, Eiga Monogatari.) Finally it brought on the calamities of Hōgen and Heiji, and the capital declined from then on. (Hōgen Monogatari, Heiji Monogatari.) From the Ōwa era onward, nobles and commoners alike vied to live north of Fourth Avenue in the Left Capital, and the Right Capital became almost a desolate ruin. (Honchō Monzui.) When the Taira rose in succession, they again followed the Fujiwara in imitation, and their arrogance, haughtiness and violence grew still worse. Their carriages and clothing, caps and carriage ornaments exhausted the extremes of splendor. But the Greater Imperial Palace (Daidairi), after the fire of Jishō, was simply left unrebuilt. Kiyomori moved the capital to Fukuhara (Note: Yabe District, Settsu), but soon restored the old one, though the capital declined ever more. (Genpei Jōsuiki, Heike Monogatari.)

¶When the great authority passed to the Minamoto, Kamakura became a flourishing place, and the name of Keishi began to become empty here. Only the shogunate outwardly adopted an attitude of obedience, repaired the imperial residence, urged the delivery of tribute and levies, and established the law of the Ōban duty by which warriors took turns on palace guard, so that the city was kept quiet and well ordered and high and low relied on this and lived in peace. (Azuma Kagami.) The court nobles patched and mended the rites and music that had already declined, and barely preserved their models. (Gukanshō, Kitsugi-ki, Shinshō, Kōan Reisetsu.) When Ashikaga Takauji rebelled, the court was reduced to resting precariously in the southern mountains (Yoshino), while Takauji lived in the capital behaving arrogantly and shamelessly, insulting and oppressing the court nobles, so that the distinguished and great houses were almost entirely ruined. The laws established by the sovereigns of earlier ages no longer survived at all by this time. (Taiheiki.)