Treatise 2: Deities of Heaven and Earth II

¶Emperor Jinmu, the Founding Ancestor (Jinmu Tennō), while residing in Hyūga, took to heart the intention with which the heavenly deities had bestowed the land, and resolved firmly to broaden the great undertaking of the imperial house. He had long heard from Shiotsuchi-no-Oji that in the east there was a beautiful land, at the center of all under heaven, well suited as a base from which to rule the realm. He therefore took counsel with his elder brothers and the imperial princes, and led an army on the eastern campaign. At that time Kushitama Nigihayahi-no-Mikoto, as a child of the heavenly deities, had already descended from heaven and was living in the land of Yamato. Nagasunehiko, the chieftain of the region, served this Nigihayahi-no-Mikoto as his lord, and the other local magnates held their own territories, so the land was not unified. When the imperial army reached Kawachi, Nagasunehiko raised troops and fought to resist it. In this battle Itsuse-no-Mikoto was struck by a stray arrow and died. The Emperor said, "Though we are descendants of the Sun Goddess, we attacked our enemy by advancing against the sun. That is why we could not win. Let us withdraw for now, worship the deities, and advance with the radiance of the Sun Goddess at our backs; then we shall surely defeat the enemy." He therefore turned the army toward Kumano, but at sea they met a violent storm and the imperial ships drifted. Inainomikoto said, "My father is a heavenly deity and my mother a deity of the sea; why do you afflict me on both water and land?" He drew his sword, went into the sea, and became the deity Saimochi-no-Kami. Another account says that he went to Silla and became king of that country (Note: the passage from "another account" onward follows the Shinsen Shōjiroku). Mikeirino-Mikoto too grew indignant, trod upon the waves, and departed to the land of Tokoyo.

¶Even so, the Emperor's resolve was not in the least dismayed; he revered and worshiped the deities, encouraged his generals and soldiers, and sought to destroy every enemy by borrowing the divine majesty. Just then Takemikazuchi-no-Kami possessed Takakuraji and had him present to the Emperor the sword that had pacified the land. Amaterasu-Ōmikami, for her part, sent the great crow Yatagarasu to guide the imperial army. This sword that pacified the land was the Futsu-no-Mitama, and the Yatagarasu was an incarnation of Kamo-no-Takezumi-no-Kami (Note: the passage from "Kamo" onward follows the Shinsen Shōjiroku). The Emperor was deeply moved and said, "My imperial ancestress is seeking to help me accomplish the founding of my undertaking." He then advanced at last into Uda in Yamato. In the land the rebels were still powerful, and the Emperor was troubled by this. Around that time a heavenly deity appeared to him in a dream and instructed him: "Take earth from the shrine of Amenokaguyama, make heavenly flat dishes and sacred jars, and worship the deities of heaven and earth with a solemn rite of imprecation; then the rebels will be pacified of themselves." At about the same time Otokashi also made a report to the throne that agreed with the content of the dream, and the Emperor marveled. He therefore sent Shiinetsuhiko and Otokashi to fetch the earth, but enemy troops were just then blocking the road. The Emperor admonished them: "Do your utmost; whether the foundation of my undertaking is achieved depends on your conduct." Shiinetsuhiko and his companions, praying to the deities, passed straight through the enemy encampment, at last obtained the earth, and returned.

¶The Emperor was greatly pleased and ordered that ritual vessels be made. He then climbed to Niu-no-Kawakami and performed a rite of divination by ordeal, and himself prayed: "I shall now use many flat dishes to make sweet starch syrup without water. If the syrup can be made, then I shall be able to pacify all under heaven while sitting still, without relying on force of arms." He also prayed: "I shall now sink the sacred jars in the river Niu. If the fish, gathered thick as rocks, all become intoxicated and float to the surface, then I shall surely be able to settle the land, and everything I pray for will go as I wish." Then he pulled up a true sakaki tree from the riverbank and worshiped the various deities. He commanded Michi-no-Omi-no-Mikoto: "I shall now personally perform a visible rite of worship for Takamimusubi-no-Mikoto. You shall be the chief officiant." He also bestowed on him the title Itsuhime. Thereupon they named the clay jars "sacred jars," fire "Itsu-no-Kagutsuchi," water "Itsu-no-Mizuhanome," provisions "Itsu-no-Ukanome," firewood "Itsu-no-Yamatsuchi," and grass "Itsu-no-Nozuchi," and the custom of conducting rites with offerings in the sacred jars began here.

¶The Emperor then partook of the offerings from the sacred jars, readied his army, and set out. His sincerity reached the deities, and the light of the deities became his ally and protected him. The generals and soldiers were roused, and wherever they advanced they invariably won. The people all stood in awe of his majesty and praised him as "Ame-Oshi-no-Kami." Nigihayahi-no-Mikoto, together with his son Umashimade-no-Mikoto, killed Nagasunehiko, led his followers, and submitted. Thus the rebels were wholly subdued, and the land of Japan was greatly settled (Note: following the Nihon Shoki; from Nigihayahi onward the Sendai Kuji Hongi was also consulted). He then fixed his capital at Kashihara, and for the first time set up a divine enclosure (himorogi) and enshrined the eight deities beginning with Takamimusubi-no-Mikoto. The origin of the Hasshinden, the Hall of the Eight Deities of the Department of Deities (Jingikan), lies here. Michi-no-Omi-no-Mikoto and Ōkume-no-Mikoto guarded the palace gates; Umashimade-no-Mikoto arranged the ceremonial guard; Ame-no-Tomi-no-Mikoto installed in the main hall the Yata Mirror, the Ame-no-Murakumo Sword, and the Yasakani Curved Jewel, which had been handed down from the heavenly ancestor, and set out many offerings to worship the great hall and the palace gates. Ame-no-Taneko-no-Mikoto recited the felicitations of the heavenly deities. The Emperor received a great court from the four quarters of the realm and duly performed the accession rites. The ceremonies in the main followed the ancient forms of the heavenly ancestor (Note: following the Kogo Shūi; the Sendai Kuji Hongi was also consulted). This matter appears further in the Treatise on Rites and Music and the Treatise on Military Affairs.

¶Umashimade-no-Mikoto, by imperial command, enshrined the Futsu-no-Mitama in the palace hall and called it Takefutsu-no-Ōkami. He also performed worship on behalf of the Emperor and Empress with the auspicious treasures, pacifying their spirits and praying for long life. The origin of the Chinkonsai, the Spirit-Pacifying Festival, lies here (Note: following the Sendai Kuji Hongi). In the fourth year, by edict, he established a sacred precinct within Mount Tomi, worshiped the imperial ancestral heavenly deities, and declared his great filial devotion (Note: following the Nihon Shoki). The Emperor had by then revered the Yata Mirror as the divine spirit of the heavenly ancestor, and placed it, together with the precious sword and the jewel, in the same hall and on the same seat, and presided over the realm in this manner. At that time the distance between the Emperor and the deities was not yet great. The distinction between what belonged to the deities and what belonged to the officials was not yet clear. The ministers who assisted the Emperor, for example the Nakatomi and Imbe clans, were descendants of Ame-no-Koyane-no-Mikoto and Futodama-no-Mikoto respectively, and while holding charge of ritual affairs generation after generation they also took part in the government of the court. The Ōtomo and Mononobe clans, descendants of Ame-no-Oshihi-no-Mikoto and Nigihayahi-no-Mikoto, mainly commanded the military guard while also taking part in sacred affairs. Ritual and government were one and indivisible. The successive courts followed this custom, and what is called the "Way of Kannagara" was practiced (Note: the purport of the Nihon Shoki, the Kogo Shūi, the Sendai Kuji Hongi, and the Jinnō Shōtōki was taken into account. Also, the annotation in the Nihon Shoki says that kannagara means following the Way of the deities, and also that the Way of the deities exists naturally).

¶Emperor Sujin had from early on the resolve to govern all under heaven; he revered and honored the deities, above all the heavenly ancestor, and feared to defile her majesty. In the sixth year of his reign, by edict, he set up a stone-fortified divine enclosure at Kasanui village in Yamato, transferred Amaterasu-Ōmikami and the Ame-no-Murakumo Sword there, and had the imperial princess Toyosukiirihime-no-Mikoto serve them. He further commanded the Imbe clan to lead the descendants of the two deities Ishikoridome-no-Kami and Ame-no-Mahitotsu-no-Kami to make copies of the mirror and sword, and placed them together with the Yasakani Curved Jewel inside the palace hall as sacred tokens to protect his person. These are the mirror and sword presented on the day of accession of each successive emperor (Note: the passage from "He further commanded" onward follows the Kogo Shūi).

¶Earlier than this, Yamato-no-Ōkunitama-no-Kami had also been worshiped within the palace hall, but at this time the Emperor commanded the imperial princess Nunakiirihime-no-Mikoto to transfer and worship it elsewhere. Around that time calamities occurred one after another and the people wandered homeless. The Emperor was greatly fearful and humbled himself, apologizing to the deities for his offenses. In the spring of the seventh year he made a progress to Kamu-Asajihara, prayed to the eight hundred myriad deities, and inquired by divination into the cause of the calamities. Then Ōmononushi-no-Kami possessed Yamato-totohi-momosohime-no-Mikoto and declared, "Why does the Emperor grieve that the country is not at peace? If you worship me properly, the country will become peaceful of itself." The Emperor accordingly worshiped him with full ceremony, but no effect appeared. The Emperor then swept clean the interior of the hall, fasted and purified himself, and prayed. In a dream Ōmononushi-no-Kami appeared and declared, "Emperor, you need grieve no longer that the country is not at peace. If you have my child Ōtataneko worship me, the country will at once be settled, and people from foreign lands will also come to submit." Just then three persons, Yamato-toihaya-Kamu-Asajihara-no-Makuwashihime, Ōmizuguchi-no-Sukune, and Ise-no-Oumi-no-Kimi, each reported a dream they had seen, saying, "If Ōtataneko is made the chief for worshiping Ōmononushi-no-Kami, and Ichishi-no-Nagaochi is made the chief for worshiping Yamato-no-Ōkunitama-no-Kami, the realm will surely be at peace." The Emperor was greatly pleased, issued an edict throughout the realm to search for Ōtataneko, and found him at Suemura in Chinu district. The Emperor again made a progress to Kamu-Asajihara, assembled the royal princes and ministers and the many hereditary groups, summoned Ōtataneko and questioned him, and, learning that he was indeed a descendant of Ōmononushi-no-Kami, said, "The people will surely be happy." He then divined whether to make Ikagashiko the distributor of the offerings to the deities, and the result was auspicious. He also divined whether to adopt an expedient method for worshiping the other deities, and the result was inauspicious, so he had Ikagashiko make the heavenly flat dishes (Note: the "four characters" follow the Kojiki). Ōtataneko was made to worship Ōmononushi-no-Kami, and Nagaochi to worship Yamato-no-Ōkunitama-no-Kami. Afterwards he divined about worshiping other deities and the result was auspicious. He therefore worshiped the eight hundred myriad deities anew, and established heavenly shrines and earthly shrines, as well as divine lands and divine households (Note: following the Nihon Shoki). When a great storm of wind and rain damaged the crops, the Emperor was more anxious and fearful than before. In a dream deities who called themselves Ame-no-Mihashira-no-Kami and Kuni-no-Mihashira-no-Kami appeared and admonished him: "If you offer cloth and silk, spears and shields, and other goods, and worship us, the five grains will surely ripen abundantly" (Note: following the Engishiki).

¶At this time the great deity of Kashima descended upon Mount Ōsaka and, possessing a person, declared, "If the Emperor worships me, the lands he governs, large and small, will all return to imperial rule" (Note: following the Hitachi no Kuni Fudoki). He therefore issued an edict to build a shrine at Tatsuta and worship the two deities Ame-no-Mihashira and Kuni-no-Mihashira (Note: following the Engishiki), and also offered tribute cloth to the Kashima Shrine (Note: following the Hitachi no Kuni Fudoki).

¶In the eighth year, Ikuhi, a man of Takahashi village, was made the Sakabito, brewer of sacred sake, of the Ōmiwa deity, and Ōtataneko was made to worship the deity. When the Emperor made a progress to the shrine, Ikuhi presented sake. The Emperor held a banquet with the many senior courtiers, drinking together, composing songs, and greatly enjoying himself. In the following year, the Emperor, moved by an oracle in a dream, offered a red shield and spear to Sumisaka-no-Kami of Uda and a black shield and spear to Ōsaka-no-Kami; he thus worshiped the many deities everywhere and prayed with utmost sincerity, and the deities all responded with pleasure. Wind and rain became favorable, the many grains ripened, the epidemic subsided of itself, and the land was at peace (Note: from "in the following year" onward the Kojiki was also consulted).

¶Thereupon his power extended even to the foreign peoples of the four quarters, and distant peoples and barbarians all submitted to royal civilization. He then for the first time surveyed the population and established the Yuhazu-no-Mitsugi, the bow-notch tribute, for men and the Tanasue-no-Mitsugi, the finger-tip tribute, for women, and for the first time used items such as bear and deer hides, antlers, and cloth to worship the deities (Note: the passage from "for the first time used" onward follows the Kogo Shūi).

¶In the sixtieth year, by edict, he sent Takemorosumi to bring in the treasure vessels of the shrine at Izumo. Izumo-no-Furune was put to death for his offense. The Izumo-no-Omi were frightened and bewildered and became unable to worship the deity. At that time the child of Hikatobe, a person of Hikami in Tanba, spoke words that were strange. Hikatobe thought it was divine possession and told the Crown Prince. The Crown Prince reported it to the throne, and an edict was issued to the Izumo-no-Omi to have them resume the worship of the deity (Note: following the Nihon Shoki).

¶In the twenty-fifth year of Emperor Suinin, he commanded the imperial princess Yamatohime-no-Mikoto to divine and fix anew a sacred site, and to worship Amaterasu-Ōmikami. He made five senior courtiers, Takenunakawawake, Hikokunibuku, Ōkashima, Tochine, and Takehi, escorting envoys along the route. Yamatohime-no-Mikoto, bearing the great deity, went from the Miwa-no-Mimoro Palace at Miwa in Yamato into Iga, and passing through Ōmi, Mino, and Owari reached Ise. There Ōta-no-Mikoto came and said, "On the bank of the Isuzu River there is a good piece of land. It would be well to establish the shrine there." When Yamatohime-no-Mikoto went around inspecting the place, a divine oracle came at just that moment, saying, "I wish to dwell in this land." She therefore built an Itsuki-no-Miya, a palace for the sacred rites, beside the river, pacified and enshrined the divine spirit, and fixed it as the eternal shrine. Yamatohime-no-Mikoto was made to serve there. This place, it is said, is where the heavenly ancestor first descended from heaven.

¶At this time the Kuni-no-Miyatsuko and Agata-no-Miyatsuko of the various provinces through which Yamatohime-no-Mikoto had passed presented many fine rice fields, which were established as sacred land. A Kandokoro, a divine office, was set up to take charge of miscellaneous affairs. Ame-no-Mitoshi-no-Mikoto was made the Negi, and prayers were offered for the perpetuity of the imperial throne and the tranquility of the realm, with worship and entreaty for abundant harvests of the five grains. Ame-no-Mitoshi-no-Mikoto was a descendant of Ame-no-Koyane-no-Mikoto and the ancestor of the Arakida Shinushi. Ōta-no-Mikoto was a descendant of Sarutahiko-no-Ōkami and the ancestor of the Uji-no-Tsuchigimi. It is said that when the heavenly ancestor was still in heaven she had made a secret covenant with the deity Sarutahiko, and that there was a profound reason why that deity had descended first and settled in this land (Note: the Nihon Shoki, Kojiki, Kogo Shūi, Daijingū Gishikichō, and Yamatohime-no-Mikoto Seiki were consulted).

¶At this time Yamato-no-Ōkami possessed Ōmizuguchi-no-Sukune and declared, "Long ago there was an agreement: that Amaterasu-Ōmikami would govern the entire High Plain of Heaven, that the imperial grandchild would govern solely the eighty myriad spirits of the Central Land of Reed Plains, and that I myself would govern the offices of the great earth. Although this divine covenant was already fixed, the former emperors, in worshiping the deities, did not seek out the root and fixed their attention only on twigs and leaves. That is why good fortune was not preserved. If now you repent of your error and worship truly with reverence, the life of the imperial grandchild will be long and the realm will be clear and tranquil." The Emperor then had Kugenushi divine about this, fixed Anashi village as sacred land, commanded Nunakiwakahime-no-Mikoto to worship the deity at Nagaoka Cape in Ōichi, and afterwards had Nagaochi-no-Sukune take her place.

¶In the twenty-seventh year, by edict, he had bows, arrows, and swords offered to the various shrines, and further established sacred lands and divine households; the use of weapons as offerings in rituals began here (Note: on consideration, in the reign of Emperor Sujin spears and shields were already offered to the deities, so the worship of deities with weapons did not begin at this time as such. Probably from this time on it was fixed as a regular practice and offered to the various deities). Indeed, ever since the Founding Ancestor pacified the realm through the majesty of the deities, the successive emperors have all made reverence for the deities and esteem for martial valor the foundation of government and instruction, and the reason our national polity is august and solemn is truly based on this.

¶In the thirty-ninth year, earlier than this, the great deity Takefutsu had been transferred and enshrined at the Isonokami Shrine (Note: the passage from "earlier than this" onward follows the Sendai Kuji Hongi). At this time Imperial Prince Inishikiirihiko-no-Mikoto had a thousand swords made and deposited at the shrine, and was commanded to take charge of its divine treasures. Inishikiirihiko-no-Mikoto later handed the office over to his younger sister Ōnakatsuhime-no-Mikoto, and Ōnakatsuhime-no-Mikoto in turn had Mononobe-no-Ōmuraji Tochine take charge of it. From then on the Mononobe clan took charge of the divine treasures of Isonokami generation after generation.

¶In the fortieth year of Emperor Keikō, he sent his son Yamato-Takeru-no-Mikoto to subdue the eastern barbarians. Yamato-Takeru-no-Mikoto was imposing in appearance and unrivaled in martial valor. The Emperor loved and valued him exceptionally and said, "In appearance he is my son, but in truth he is a man like a deity. Heaven is surely helping me to pacify all under heaven." Previously he had sent him to attack the Kumaso, and now again he parted with his beloved son and sent him. He had already resolved in advance to make him Crown Prince and awaited the completion of his achievements. Passing through Ise, Yamato-Takeru-no-Mikoto worshiped at the Grand Shrine, received the Ame-no-Murakumo Sword from Yamatohime-no-Mikoto, and set out. When he reached Suruga he met with the treachery of local rebels, but he drew his sword, mowed down the grass, and escaped the peril. For this reason the name of the sword was changed and it came to be called the Kusanagi Sword, the Grass-Cutting Sword. He thus crossed mountains and rivers and wholly pacified the eastern lands. On his triumphal return journey he fell ill and died (Note: following the Nihon Shoki). His spirit took up residence in the divine sword and remained in the eastern lands to pacify them. The Owari clan has served its worship generation after generation, and this is the great deity of Atsuta (Note: the Nihon Shoki, Kojiki, and Atsuta-sha Engi were consulted).

¶The Emperor enfeoffed more than seventy imperial princes in provinces and districts. In the reign of Emperor Seimu, he further established additional Kuni-no-Miyatsuko and Agatanushi, and gave all of them spears and shields as insignia (Note: following the Nihon Shoki; the Kojiki and the Sendai Kuji Hongi were also consulted). In those days the Kuni-no-Miyatsuko and Agatanushi were all descendants of emperors or deities, inherited their domains generation after generation, served the worship of their ancestors, and pacified and guarded their lands with spear and shield in hand. Therefore the provinces and districts, large and small, each kept the hereditary duties handed down from their ancestors and served the court. When a great ritual took place at court, the Omi, Muraji, Tomo, and Miyatsuko within the court, and the Kuni-no-Miyatsuko and Agatanushi outside it, each served in it with the duties inherited from their ancestors. The Emperor gathered their sincere and unchanging hearts into one and served the heavenly ancestor. For that reason, throughout the land of Japan there was no one who did not look up to the virtue of the deities and submit to imperial civilization (Note: the purport of the Nihon Shoki, Kojiki, Sendai Kuji Hongi, and Shinsen Shōjiroku was consulted).

¶That Empress Jingū subdued the Three Kingdoms of Korea was truly by receiving the divine command and with the help of the deities. After she pacified that country, she enshrined the Aramitama, the rough spirit, of the great deity Sumiyoshi there and made it a deity to pacify the country (Note: the passage from "enshrined" onward follows the Kojiki). After her triumphal return she also built a shrine at Yamada village in Anato and worshiped the rough spirit there.

¶In the following year, by divine oracle, she enshrined the rough spirit of Amaterasu-Ōmikami in Hirota Province, Wakahirume-no-Kami in Ikuta-no-Nagao Province, Kotoshironushi-no-Kami in Nagata Province, and the gentle spirits (Nigimitama) of the three Sumiyoshi deities at Nagao in Ōtsu-Nunakura (Note: following the Nihon Shoki). She next enshrined Minume-no-Kami at Minume Bay (Note: following the Settsu no Kuni Fudoki as cited in Senkaku's Man'yō Shō), and Nihotsuhime-no-Kami at Fujishiro Peak on the Suga River in Kii (Note: following the Harima no Kuni Fudoki as cited in the Shaku Nihongi); all of these were rites of thanksgiving for the help of the deities.

¶In the Hinoto-U year of Emperor Ōjin, Silla rebelled against the command. The Emperor, together with the Empress Dowager, offered prayers to the heavenly deities, had Takeshiuchi-no-Sukune deliberate on the matter, and sent Chikumanagahiko as envoy to demand an accounting. As a result he achieved success.

¶In the fifth year of Emperor Richū, earlier on, when Kurumamochi-no-Kimi had gone to Tsukushi, he had arbitrarily surveyed the Kurumamochi-be and even seized people who should have served the deity. At this time it was discovered that the deity Munakata had censured this, and the Emperor severely rebuked Kurumamochi-no-Kimi, took away his hereditary households, and had them presented to the deity Munakata.

¶In this year the Emperor hunted on Awaji, and, following an oracle of Izanagi-no-Kami, abolished the punishment of tattooing the faces of the Kaibe, the keepers of animals.

¶In the ninth year of Emperor Yūryaku, he sent Ōshikōchi-no-Atai Katabu to worship the deity Munakata, but Katabu was not reverent in the rites and was put to death. The Emperor himself wished to attack Silla, but because there was a divine oracle it did not come about. He then sent Ki-no-Oyumi-no-Sukune and others to attack it, but they did not succeed. At that time Koguryŏ was invading Paekche, so the Emperor commanded Paekche to worship the founding deity of the Central Land, and restored that country. In those days all foreign countries stood in awe of and submitted to the Central Land (Japan) and called it the "Land of the Deities." Their memorials to the throne always stated, "In heaven there are the deities; on earth there is the Emperor." That the court was looked up to in this way was truly due to the lingering virtue of reverence for the deities and esteem for martial valor (Note: following the Nihon Shoki).

¶In the twenty-first year, the Emperor received in a dream an oracle from Amaterasu-Ōmikami: "I am here alone, and because no deity who governs food is at my side, I cannot enjoy my meals in peace. You should transfer and enshrine Toyoukebime-no-Kami here." The Emperor woke in alarm. In the following year he commanded Ōsasa-no-Mikoto to go to Tanba, welcome the deity, and transfer and enshrine her at Yamadahara to the west of the Grand Shrine. This is the Watarai-no-Miya (Note: following the Toyukeguū Gishikichō; the Yamatohime-no-Mikoto Seiki was also consulted). The descendants of Ōsasa-no-Mikoto became its Kannushi, chief priests, generation after generation (Note: following the Toyoukeguū Negi Bunin Shidai). From then on the two shrines together came to be called the Ise Grand Shrine (Note: following the Engishiki).

¶In the third year of Emperor Kenzō, when Abe-no-Omi Kotoshiro went to Mimana as envoy, the Moon Deity possessed a person and declared, "My ancestor Takamimusubi-no-Kami truly has the merit of having forged heaven and earth. You should present people and land and pray for blessings." Kotoshiro returned and reported it to the throne. The Emperor accordingly dedicated the Utaarasuda fields and commanded Oshimi-no-Sukune to serve there. The Sun Deity also possessed a person and told Kotoshiro, "Present the fields of Iware to Takamimusubi-no-Kami." Fourteen chō of fields were accordingly presented, and the Tsushima Shimo-Agata-no-Atai were made to perform the worship.

¶In the thirteenth year of Emperor Kinmei, King Myŏng of Paekche for the first time presented a Buddhist image. When the Emperor asked whether it should be worshiped, Mononobe-no-Ōmuraji Okoshi and Nakatomi-no-Muraji Kamako reported, "The state rituals have fixed ceremonies from of old. If we now worship a buddha, we shall surely provoke the anger of the deities." The Emperor followed this and gave the Buddhist image to Soga-no-Inume. Soon afterwards an epidemic spread widely and many people died young. Okoshi and Kamako again petitioned, "The Buddhist teaching should be abolished and blessings for the future prayed for." The Emperor accepted this and decreed, "Throw the Buddhist image into Horie." Thereupon great wind and rain arose in the realm and the people were anxious and afraid. The imperial envoy Urabe-no-Iki-no-Wakahiko divined about this, and the result was "It is the curse of the Kamo deity." A day was accordingly chosen and the Kamo deity was worshiped. The origin of the Kamo Festival lies here (Note: the passage from "at that time" onward follows the Kamo Engi as cited in the Shūchūshō, the Hata-shi Honkeichō as cited in the Honchō Getsuryō, and the Kakaishō).

¶In the fifteenth year, King Myŏng of Paekche was attacked and killed by Silla. In the following year, the Emperor sent his son, Prince Hye, back to his home country. Soga-no-Inume admonished Hye: "Long ago, in the reign of Emperor Ōhatsuse (Emperor Yūryaku), your country was about to be destroyed by Koguryŏ. The Emperor received an oracle from the deities and had your country worship the founding deity of our country. Thanks to that the country was kept safe. This deity is the one who established the state when heaven and earth first separated. I have heard recently that your country has ceased to worship this deity. If you now repent your error and worship with reverence, the country will surely flourish again. Never forget it." But Inume and his son Umako and others had long honored the Buddhist teaching and made light of the deities. As a result calamities and epidemics broke out repeatedly in the realm, and many people died of disease.

¶In his later years Emperor Bidatsu, adopting the words of the Ōmuraji Mononobe-no-Yuge-no-Moriya and the senior courtier Nakatomi-no-Katsumi, sought to abolish the Buddhist teaching and quell the calamities.

¶Then the Emperor died and Emperor Yōmei ascended the throne. Emperor Yōmei honored the Way of the deities but also believed in Buddhism. In the second year, at the time of the Niiname harvest festival, the Emperor fell ill and returned to the palace, and had a discussion held about taking refuge in the Three Treasures (Buddhism). Moriya and Katsumi strongly remonstrated: "We have never heard of turning one's back on the deities to worship a buddha." But Umako at last brought a monk into the palace. Because of this the enmity among the three deepened further. When the Emperor died, matters came at last to a struggle by force of arms.

¶Umako, relying on his power as a maternal relative of the throne and allying himself closely with Prince Umayado (Prince Shōtoku), killed Moriya and Katsumi. Soon he committed an act of great treason and placed Empress Suiko on the throne. Umako seized power for himself, and, acting in concert with the Crown Prince, made light of the deities and fawned on the Buddha without scruple. Because Umako was the Empress's maternal uncle, she tolerated his conduct. Even so, the Empress said, "In governing the realm our ancestors have made reverence for the deities their foundation. How can the rites be neglected?" and she commanded the Crown Prince and the Minister to lead the hundred officials in worshiping the deities. After this, however, the Buddhist teaching flourished all the more, and the custom of honoring the deities that had held since ancient times declined.

¶In the fourth year of Emperor Jomei, the Tang envoy Gao Biaoren and his party came to Japan. They were invited to the Naniwa Guesthouse and granted sacred sake. From then on, every time a foreign envoy came to court, it became a permanent custom to grant him the sacred sake of Suminomichi and Ikuta (Note: the passage from "from then on" onward follows the Engishiki).

¶By the reign of Empress Kōgyoku, the Soga clan's arbitrary rule had reached its extreme. Prince Naka-no-Ōe, adopting the plan of Nakatomi-no-Muraji Kamatari, put Iruka and his father to death, set the disorder right and restored the proper course, helped and supported Emperor Kōtoku, and as Crown Prince himself assisted in the many affairs of government.

¶In the first year of Taika, he commanded the ministers and Tomo-no-Miyatsuko and others to discuss the way to govern the people. The Minister Soga-no-Ishikawamaro petitioned, "First pacify and worship the deities, and afterwards discuss government." Envoys were accordingly sent to Owari and Mino, and offerings for the deities were levied. In the autumn of this year governors of the eastern provinces were appointed, and instructed to govern the myriad lands anew in accordance with the commands of the heavenly deities. Various laws and institutions were thus established.

¶In the following year he further admonished the Kugyō, Omi, Muraji, Kuni-no-Miyatsuko, and Tomo-no-Miyatsuko: "The successive emperors, our imperial ancestors, governed all under heaven together with your ancestors. Now I too, relying on the protection of the deities, wish to govern all under heaven together with you. You must rectify yourselves and rectify others. If there is anyone who does not rectify himself, he will surely receive the punishment of heaven. Can you do otherwise than be careful?" Formerly the Crown Prince had prayed at the Grand Shrine for the removal of rebellious ministers, and soon afterward those ministers were put to death. In this year he sent envoys to present divine treasures as thanks (Note: the passage from "formerly" onward follows the Daijingū Zōjiki).

¶In the third year, he issued an edict: "Indeed the heavenly deities cherished this Central Land and made it the land that their descendants should rule. Therefore from the beginning of heaven and earth the imperial grandchildren have reigned, and the realm was settled as one with no distinction between them and us. Recently, however, from the Omi, Muraji, and the Ni-no-Miyatsuko downward, and universally to the common people, each has clung to his own clan and sharply divided them and us, so that government of the country has become difficult. From now on, let us follow the commands of the heavenly deities and together lead in an age of order and peace" (Note: following the Nihon Shoki). Although the Grand Shrine had from of old set up a special Kami-no-Kuni, a divine province, and had the Kuni-no-Miyatsuko manage its affairs and serve the sacred rites, the Emperor abolished the divine province system, set up Miyake, imperial granaries, anew at Yamadahara and Takehara in Watarai, and changed the Kandokoro-no-Tsukasa to the Daijingūshi, Superintendent of the Grand Shrine (Note: following the Daijingū Gishikichō).

¶In the fifth year, he separated lands from the jurisdiction of the two Kuni-no-Miyatsuko, Unakami and Naka, established the Kashima District, attached it to Hitachi Province, and dedicated it to the Kashima Shrine as a Kami-no-Kōri, a divine district, a special district dedicated to a deity (Note: following the Hitachi no Kuni Fudoki). In addition, there are about five great shrines of the realm to which divine districts have been dedicated. To the Awa Shrine of Awa, the Awa District; to the Kumano Shrine of Izumo, the Ō District; to the Munakata Shrine of Chikuzen, the Munakata District; to the Katori Shrine of Shimōsa, the Katori District; and to the Hinokuma and Kunikakasu Shrines of Kii, the Nagusa District, were each made divine districts. These probably began in this period (Note: following the Ryō no Shūge and the Engishiki. Also: on consideration, the establishment of divine districts in the provinces cannot be found in the official histories, but according to the Hitachi no Kuni Fudoki and the Daijingū Gishikichō it seems to have begun with the Taika institutions. For that reason it is recorded here).

¶The Emperor had once had a tree at the Ikukunitama Shrine cut down, and the world criticized this as making light of the Way of the deities. Yet none of the commands he issued failed to be based on the intention with which the heavenly deities had entrusted the country (Note: following the Nihon Shoki). In the Kinoe-Ne year of Emperor Chūsō (Emperor Tenji), four villages of Take District belonging to the Grand Shrine were separated off to make a public district, and a Miyake was established at Iino-Takamiya village (Note: following the Daijingū Gishikichō; "Chūsō" is a title taken from the Kakumei Kanmon).

¶In the third year, he set up many divine seats beside the Yama-no-Mii spring, distributed offerings, and had Nakatomi-no-Muraji Kane proclaim the norito, the ritual prayers.

¶Emperor Tenmu was by nature outstanding in martial valor and gave his attention to reverence for the deities. When he raised his army, he first reached the Tō River in Ise and worshiped the Grand Shrine from afar. Also, following a divine oracle, he offered horses and weapons at the tomb of the Founding Ancestor. After he took possession of the realm, he offered tribute cloth to the two shrines of Takechi and Musa, and worshiped the two deities Kotoshironushi-no-Kami and Ikutama-no-Kami. He also decreed that the divine ranks of the three deities of Takechi, Musa, and Muraya be raised and that they be worshiped. All this was because of the help of the deities in his campaign.

¶In the year of his accession he made Ōku-no-Himemiko the Saiō, High Priestess of Ise. He first had her live at the Itsuki-no-Miya of Hatsuse to undergo purification. In the following year she entered the Grand Shrine and served there. The origin of the system of the Shosaikū, the first purification palace, lies here.

¶In the spring of the third year, offerings were presented to the various shrines. In the fourth month he sent envoys to worship the two deities of Tatsuta and Hirose. The two festivals, the Kazenokami-no-Matsuri (Festival of the Wind Deity) and the Ōimi-no-Matsuri (Great Abstinence Festival), at length became regular observances.

¶In the eighth month of the fourth year, he issued an edict throughout the realm to perform a Great Purification (Ōharae). In each province the Kuni-no-Miyatsuko were to provide one horse and one tsune of cloth as purification offerings, and the district governors were each to provide one sword, one hoe, one small knife, and one sickle together with one set of arrows, one deerskin, and one bundle of rice. Each household was to provide one strand of hemp, to be used for the expenses. He ordered the officials of the deities to divine and fix the provinces and districts that would hold the Niinamesai, the harvest festival: Yamada District of Owari was made the Yuki, and Kasa District of Tanba the next Suki. In the tenth month he offered tribute cloth to the many deities of the Ainie. The name "Ainie" appears here for the first time. In the eleventh month the Niinamesai was held.

¶In the fifth year, he decreed: "As for the divine taxes of the heavenly shrines and earthly shrines, one third shall be used for offerings to the deities, and two thirds shall be given to the Kannushi."

¶In the spring of the sixth year, the Emperor wished to worship the deities of heaven and earth and to have purification and ablutions performed throughout the realm, but because Imperial Princess Tōchi had just died, the matter was suspended.

¶In the first month of the ninth year, offerings were distributed to the various deities. He decreed that the Kinai and the provinces should repair the heavenly shrines, earthly shrines, and Shingū. In the fifth month he worshiped the spirits of the imperial ancestors. In autumn he had a Great Purification performed throughout the realm and had the Kuni-no-Miyatsuko of the provinces each provide one servant as a purification offering (Note: following the Nihon Shoki).

¶In the thirteenth year, he had the two Grand Shrines rebuilt anew, and for the first time dispatched envoys carrying the divine treasures (Note: following the Jingū Kyūki as cited in the Enpyō Taiko, and the Daijingū Zōjiki). From then on it became the regular practice to rebuild the shrines every twenty years (Note: following the Daijingū Zōjiki).

¶In the first year of Akamidori, earlier, in the reign of Chūsō (Emperor Tenji), the Silla monk Dōgyō had stolen the divine sword Kusanagi and tried to return to his own country, but wind and rain closed in darkly and he could not go further; he was captured and executed, and the sword was kept in the palace. At this time the Emperor fell ill. Divination said, "It is the curse of the divine sword," so it was deposited at the Atsuta Shrine and the shrine was newly repaired (Note: the passage from "captured" onward was consulted from the Atsuta-sha Engi). In autumn, he issued an edict throughout the realm to perform a Great Purification. He offered tribute cloth to Hinokuma-no-Kami and Kunikakasu-no-Kami of Kii Province, to the four shrines of Asuka, and to the great deity Sumiyoshi, and also prayed to the deities of heaven and earth for the recovery of the Emperor's illness, and then offered tribute cloth to the great deity of Tosa as well.

¶In the autumn of the third year of Empress Jitō, she assembled the hundred officials at the Jingikan and proclaimed matters concerning the deities of heaven and earth. In the fourth year, the rice lands of the divine households were added to those for the deities of heaven and earth of the Kinai. In the fifth year, she sent envoys to worship the deities of Suwa and Minochi in Shinano. In the fifth month of the following year she sent envoys to announce to the four great deities, beginning with the Grand Shrine, that new shrine buildings would be built. In the ninth month the Jingikan presented the inventory of the divine treasures and the seals and keys, and tribute from Silla was then offered to the five shrines beginning with the Grand Shrine (Note: following the Nihon Shoki).

¶In the second year of Emperor Mommu, because of drought, horses were offered to the deity of Mikumari Peak at Yoshino, horses and tribute cloth were offered to the various shrines, and envoys were sent to worship the renowned mountains and rivers of the capital region and pray for rain. The origin of offering tribute cloth in prayer for rain lies here. In the third year, tribute from the Southern Islands was offered to the Grand Shrine and the various shrines.

¶In the summer of the first year of Taihō, he decreed by edict: "The divine rice of Tsukiyomi-no-Kami, Kabai-no-Kami, Konoshima-no-Kami, and Tsuzukashi-no-Kami of Kadono District in Yamashiro shall from now on be given to the Nakatomi clan." In autumn, he for the first time established an office called the Zōdaihei-shi, Bureau for the Making of Great Offerings, and made Minu-no-Ōkimi, of Senior Fifth Rank Lower, and Hiketa-no-Asomi Niheri, of Junior Fifth Rank Lower, its heads. In the second month of the second year, on the occasion of distributing the great offerings, he sped post horses to summon the Kuni-no-Miyatsuko of the provinces to the capital. He then distributed tribute cloth to the shrines of the Kinai and the seven circuits. In autumn, he decreed by edict: "The goods from the household allotments of the Grand Shrine are articles for the use of the deity. They are to be treated as equivalent to articles for sacred rites and must never be defiled or disordered." In winter, he prayed to nine deities within the jurisdiction of the Dazaifu for the subjugation of the Hayato, and offered tribute cloth in thanks. In this year the Ryō, the administrative codes, were promulgated (Note: following the Shoku Nihongi). The institutions concerning the deities can be known from this as well (Note: following the Ryō no Gige).

¶Since high antiquity, ritual affairs had been in the charge of the civil and military ministers, and no office specializing in them had been separately established (Note: the purport of the Nihon Shoki, Kojiki, and Kogo Shūi was consulted). In the reign of Emperor Suinin, when the Grand Shrine was moved to Ise, special attendant officials, the Gubukan, were established (Note: following the Yamatohime-no-Mikoto Seiki and the Shokugen-shō). After that, ritual and government gradually separated. In the reign of Emperor Kōtoku there was an office called the Jinkan-no-Kami, held by Imbe-no-Obito Sakashi, which took charge solely of the ceremonial, marriage, and divination affairs of the royal family and the palace (Note: following the Kogo Shūi). In this period, the Jingikan was established, with one Haku, Director, placed over it to oversee all matters of the rituals, divination, and priestly officials of the deities of the realm; it was ranked above the hundred offices, and its post was held in especial honor. This was probably to make clear the principle of reverence for the deities (Note: the passage from "specially established" onward was consulted from the Shokugen-shō). At the Dazaifu one Kanzukasa, Chief of Deities, was placed to take charge of the various rituals of the nine provinces and three islands. In the provinces, the Kami and Suke, governor and vice-governor, of each were made to manage the shrines within their province (Note: following the Ryō no Gige; "nine provinces and three islands" follows the Ryō no Shūge).

¶Among the deities of heaven and earth, those listed in the ritual register were all deities who opened up the myriad things and accomplished great undertakings, managed the heavenly enterprise and helped establish the imperial foundation, or spread benevolence over the realm and sent down authority and blessing on the people; all their names were under the charge of the Jingikan (Note: the purport of the Nihon Shoki, Shoku Nihongi, Ruijū Kokushi, and Engishiki was weighed). The various rites of the four seasons each had fixed rules. In the second month of spring there was the Kinensai (Prayer for the Harvest); in the third month, the Hanashizume-no-Matsuri (Flower-Pacifying Festival); in the fourth month, the Kanmisosai (Festival of the Divine Garments), Saikusa-no-Matsuri, Ōimi-no-Matsuri, and Kazenokami-no-Matsuri; in the sixth month and the twelfth month, the Tsukinamisai (Monthly Festival), Michiae-no-Matsuri, and Hoshizume-no-Matsuri (Fire-Pacifying Festival), with the Great Purification (Ōharae) held on the last day of those months; in the seventh month, the Ōimi and Kazenokami festivals; in the ninth month, the Kanmisosai and the Kanname-sai (Festival of First Fruits); and in the eleventh month, the Ainiesai, the Daijōsai (Great Thanksgiving Festival), and the Chinkonsai. The schedules for offerings, ceremonies, and purification all had fixed forms. When an emperor ascended the throne, the deities of heaven and earth were worshiped collectively; this was called the Ōnie (Daijō) and was regarded as the most important of rituals. It was held once per imperial reign, with the provincial governors conducting it; the various offices in the capital otherwise held it every year, and this too was commonly called the Ōnie, but it was later fixed as the Niiname (Note: the passage from "later fixed" onward follows the Shoku Nihongi; what follows is from the official histories).

¶At the Kinensai and the Tsukinamisai, the hundred officials assemble at the Jingikan, the Nakatomi clan proclaims the norito, and the Imbe clan distributes the offerings. At the Great Purification, the Nakatomi present the purification hemp, and the eastern and western Fumibe present the purification sword and recite the words of purification. When this is finished, the hundred officials, male and female, assemble. The Nakatomi proclaim the norito, and the Urabe perform the purification. A Great Rite (Taishi) requires three months of Arai-mi (loose abstinence) and three days of Ma-imi (strict abstinence). The great offerings are prepared and made within the three months. During the period of loose abstinence the various offices carry on their business as usual, but they must not offer condolences or visit the sick, must not eat meat, must not judge punishments or carry out death sentences or penalties, must not perform music, and must not take part in anything involving defilement. During the period of strict abstinence only ritual affairs are permitted, and all else is forbidden. The periods before and after the abstinence are together counted as loose abstinence. A rite requiring three months of abstinence is called a Great Rite, one requiring three days a Middle Rite, and one requiring one day a Small Rite (Note: on consideration, the original text states that loose abstinence for a Great Rite is one month, but according to the Ruijū Kokushi this was in fact due to a reform of the Daidō era, and under the original system it was three months. The statement in the original text was probably altered later. Therefore three months is given here, following the Ruijū Kokushi).

¶The office in charge of a ritual reports beforehand to its superiors, and the superior announces it to the various offices at dawn on the day of loose abstinence. The offerings, food and drink, fruits, and the like offered at rituals are inspected personally by the head of the office in charge, and nothing defiled may be mixed in. When envoys go to offer tribute cloth to the various shrines outside the regular rituals, they are all chosen from persons of Fifth Rank or above who have been found auspicious by divination. Only for the Grand Shrine is this applied even to regular rituals (Note: on consideration, restricting the envoys to the Grand Shrine to persons of Fifth Rank or above found auspicious by divination was in fact a regulation of the second year of Tenpyō, as seen below. The statement in the original text here was probably added later).

¶The land tax, the corvée-substitute cloth tax, and the labor tax (so, chō, and yō) of the divine households are all used for the construction of the shrines and for offerings to the deities. The taxes are treated like those of the Gisō, the reserve granaries, and the provincial governors inspect them and send them to the offices concerned (Note: following the Ryō no Gige). The Daijōsai is the means by which the Son of Heaven repays his debt to the heavenly ancestor and the many deities; its ceremony is extremely weighty and its meaning is solemn. The two provinces of Yuki and Suki are fixed beforehand, the provincial governors conduct the affairs, and they must divine, must worship, and must purify, reverencing the matter. Envoys are sent to the provinces to have the Great Purification performed. The Son of Heaven prepares the ceremonial carriage, goes to the waterside, and performs the misogi ablution, making his reverence for the deities known throughout the realm. The Inami-no-Urabe are sent to the two provinces of Yuki and Suki to have rice ears pulled in the fields and made into sake and food, out of respect for purity. The divine households of Mikawa weave the garments offered to the deities, and the Imbe of Awa present the coarse cloth garments (aratae). In making all the various things, they follow the customs of the age of the deities and do not lose the ancient ceremonies. Therefore, even in preparing these things, they observe loose and strict abstinence and gradually draw nearer to the heart of the deities. For clothing, white robes and a silk headcloth (bokutō) are used, and for the august canopy, sedge. Supreme reverence is without ornament, showing that antiquity is not forgotten. The buildings use unbarked timber and green grass, reed blinds, mats, and screens. The court dress is a blue-printed robe, with wreaths of paper mulberry fiber and hikage vine. The vessels are earthenware and bamboo baskets, with sakaki sprigs inserted and cotton fiber (yū) attached. All these honor purity and simplicity. When the rite is performed in the Itsuki-dono, the hall of purification, it must be clean and pure, in order to carry sincerity and reverence to their utmost. The Son of Heaven goes barefoot and does not have the cry clearing the way (keihitsu) made. Though in the most exalted position, he humbles himself before the deities and never tries to compete with them. The Son of Heaven himself offers the food, presents the sake, claps his hands, and answers "yes," as though facing the heavenly deities in person (Note: the passage from "himself" onward follows the Gōke Shidai).

¶Using rice to make sake and food and to entertain the heavenly ancestor and the many deities is to repay the bounty of the rice of the Yuniwa, the sacred garden, and also to express gratitude for the livelihood of the people. Offering silk garments and coarse garments is to recall the old customs of the weaving hall and to repay the debt of having been nurtured and raised. From the Nakatomi and Imbe clans down to the many functionaries, all are descendants of the deities who have inherited their duties generation after generation without change. It is as though they themselves stood in the age of the deities and saw it directly, so as not to forget their ancestors. That the music and dance use old melodies, old words, and the Kume and Kishi dances is all to hand down ancient events and preserve what is old. That the cry clearing the way is made on the return to the palace and attendants and guards follow the ordinary ceremony is to show, now that the rite has ended, the dignity of the Son of Heaven of ten thousand chariots. When the Nakatomi present the felicitations (yogoto) and the Imbe present the mirror and sword, the Son of Heaven is calm and solemn and the assembled ministers are reverent and harmonious. It is as though he were receiving the mandate anew from the heavenly ancestor and reporting the accomplishment of the matter to the deities of heaven and earth. That the musicians perform the Ōuta and the Gosechi dance shows that, the sacred rite being over, the ceremony gradually becomes more splendid. Granting stipends and conferring ranks is extending benevolence to those below. Even for the various rites of the four seasons, there is none without its meaning.

¶The Kinensai is the rite of praying to the various deities of the realm that the seasons may be favorable. That its ceremony is performed at sunrise probably derives from the sun's just rising and the myriad things being born and growing. Offering tribute cloth to the various shrines shows that reverence for the deities reaches in all directions. Praying to Mitoshi-no-Kami for abundant grain is to hasten the people's food. Praying to the deities worshiped by the Ō-mikannagi, the Great Shrine Maiden, for the perpetuity of the imperial throne is to extend the heavenly enterprise. To Ikasuri-no-Kami the prayer is for the pacification and protection of the palace, to bring peace to the four quarters of the realm. Worshiping Mikado-no-Kami, the deities of the gates, is for guarding against emergencies and out of respect for the shrine of the imperial house. Praying to Ikushima-no-Kami is to pacify and soothe distant lands, making narrow lands broad and rugged lands level, extending to all the many islands without omission, in the hope of bestowing benevolence in all four directions. Praying to Miagata-no-Kami for the flourishing of vegetables, to Yamaguchi-no-Kami for the thriving of mountain forests, and to Mikumari-no-Kami for the rich ripening of grain are all to cherish and nurture the people. To the heavenly ancestor, in particular, words of a separate kind are reverently addressed, praying that as far as the lands illumined by the imperial deity, to the ends of heaven and earth, wherever boat and cart reach, with comings and goings never ceasing, narrow lands be made broad, rugged lands level, and distant lands near. The prayer that the imperial line be handed on and the foundation of the imperial house be unshakable is a special entreaty to the ancestors, different from the prayers to the many other deities.

¶The Tsukinamisai has the same meaning as the Kinensai, but is still close to the household-deity rites (takujinsai) of the common people. The Son of Heaven makes the realm his house, and from guarding with his own hands the gates and fences of the palace, to the wide extension of his authority and virtue in the eight directions, all of it is nothing other than the affairs of the household. The grandeur of its scale can be seen here.

¶The Niinamesai has the same meaning as the Daijōsai, but its ceremony is simpler. The Hanashizume-no-Matsuri and the Saikusa-no-Matsuri pacify epidemics on behalf of the people.

¶The Ōimi-no-Matsuri is for praying for the bounty of water and rain, the Kazenokami-no-Matsuri for calming wind damage, the Hoshizume-no-Matsuri for preventing fire, and the Michiae-no-Matsuri for warding off evil spirits and demons. And the Ōharae is for purifying and removing faults and offenses committed by all, high and low, noble and base, and beginning anew together with the realm (Note: following the purport of the Ryō no Gige, the Jōgan Gishiki, and the Engishiki).

¶These various ceremonies are further described in detail in the following volume. The successive emperors devoted their hearts to reverence for the deities and their strength to the affairs of the people, repaid their roots and returned to their beginnings, and warded off calamity and prayed for blessing; this was truly thorough and meticulous, and there is no meaning in it that is not fully provided for. After the Taika Reform, however, when the feudal system was abolished and the official system reformed, the great circumstances changed completely. The Kuni-no-Miyatsuko merely took charge of the worship of their ancestors and lost the authority actually to govern the people. The Omi, Muraji, and Tomo-no-Miyatsuko were likewise newly appointed to offices, and old families sometimes declined; although the ritual ceremonies preserved their old forms, name and reality came often to diverge. In the rites of serving the deities, too, things different from those of high antiquity appeared (Note: following the Nihon Shoki and the Shoku Nihongi).

¶In the second year of Keiun, the system for women's hairdressing was fixed. However, the Kanbe and the palace women of the Saigū were left with their former customs (Note: following the Shoku Nihongi).

¶In the sixth month of the second year of Reiki, in the reign of Empress Genshō, the Jinkonjikisai (Divine Meal Festival) was held for the first time and became a regular observance (Note: following the Kuji Kongen).

¶In the seventh year of Yōrō, the system for making the household registers of the divine households was fixed.

¶In the second year of Jinki, in the reign of Emperor Shōmu, he decreed: "To ward off calamity and invite blessing, reverence for the deities comes first. I have heard recently that the grounds of the shrines in many provinces are often dirty and neglected. This greatly contravenes the ritual of reverence for the deities. The provincial governors shall personally take up the offerings, clean the grounds with care, and always treat this as their annual duty."

¶In the first year of Tenpyō, he decreed by edict: "As to the deities of heaven and earth in the provinces, have the chief officials conduct the rituals. If there are mountains and rivers that ought to be worshiped beyond the prescribed limits, permit it. The Hafuribe are exempted from this year's rice-field tax." In the following year he fixed that "those who present offerings to the Grand Shrine shall always be envoys of Fifth Rank or above who have been found auspicious by divination, and persons of Sixth Rank or below shall not be used."

¶In the ninth year, because an epidemic spread and many people died, he decreed: "Among the deities of the provinces, those that are of marked spiritual efficacy but have not yet been made recipients of offerings shall all be added to the recipients of offerings."

¶Earlier than this, the deity Hachiman had appeared on Mount Hishigata in Usa District of Buzen. In the fourth year of Jinki, a shrine was built and named the Hirohata Hachiman Daijingū. This is the so-called Usa-no-Miya (Note: the passage from "earlier than this" onward follows the Usa Takusenshū, the Jinmyōchō Tōchū, and the Shosha Genki; the Engishiki was also consulted). From then on the deity Hachiman became greatly renowned.

¶In the twelfth year, at the time of the rebellion of Fujiwara-no-Hirotsugu, he sent Mihara-no-Ōkimi, Jibu-kyō, Minister of Civil Administration, to offer tribute cloth to the Grand Shrine. He also commanded Ōno-no-Asomi Azumahito, the Great General, to pray to the deity Hachiman. He then made a progress to Ise and sent Ōi-no-Ōkimi, Shōnagon, Junior Counselor, together with the Nakatomi and Imbe clans and others, to offer tribute cloth to the Grand Shrine. When the rebellion was pacified, in the thirteenth year he offered to the deity Hachiman a hidden brocade crown, horses, household allotments, and also eighteen persons who had entered the religious life, and built a three-storied pagoda to give thanks for the fulfillment of his prayers (Note: following the Shoku Nihongi).

¶At that time the court deeply revered the Buddhist teaching and was misled by heterodox doctrines. Consequently the way of regarding the deities also became the same as the way of regarding the Buddha. Although the offering of tribute cloth and the performance of prayers were not neglected year by year, they could not prevail over the heart that revered the Buddha. The Emperor most honored and trusted the monk Gyōki and always followed his words (Note: the purport of the Shoku Nihongi and the Genkō Shakusho). But when founding the Tōdaiji, fearing a curse from the deities, he had Gyōki request permission from the Grand Shrine. Gyōki reported that permission had been granted by a divine oracle, but the Emperor still doubted. He further commanded Tachibana-no-Asomi Moroe, Udaijin, Minister of the Right, to pray about it. Gyōki proclaimed, "The sun that shines in heaven is none other than Dainichi Nyorai; its original substance (honji) is the Buddha Rushana, and its manifestation (suijaku) is Amaterasu-Ōmikami." Thus he forced through a deceptive doctrine and deceived the divine powers. Yet the court, instead of correcting his offense, on the contrary believed and adopted his doctrine, and at length made an image of the Buddha Rushana (Note: the Daijingū Zōjiki and the Ainōshō were consulted). After this, persons who deceived the court under the pretext of divine oracles appeared in succession, including the monks Gyōshin, Saichō, and Kūkai (Note: following the Shoku Nihongi and the Genkō Shakusho). Even one such as Nakatomi-no-Suge-no-Asomaro, who nearly endangered the realm, in fact owed his origin to the bad precedent set by this same Gyōki.

¶In the seventeenth year, he sent envoys to offer tribute cloth to the Hachiman Shrine. In the twentieth year, the ranks of its Hafuribe and others were advanced.

¶In the first year of Tenpyō-shōhō, in the reign of Empress Kōken, the surname Asomi was granted to Ōga-no-Morime, the Negi of Hachiman, and Ōga-no-Tamaro, the Kanzukasa. It was then reported that the great deity Hachiman had possessed a person and declared, "I wish to go up to the capital and worship the Buddha of the Tōdaiji" (Note: the passage from "worship" onward follows the Teiō Hennenki and the Rekidai Kōki). Ishikawa-no-Asomi Toshitari, Sangi, Imperial Counselor, and Fujiwara-no-Asomi Uona, Jijū, Chamberlain, and others were therefore sent as Geijinshi, envoys to welcome the deity, and the provinces they passed through were ordered to provide more than a hundred soldiers to guard the front and rear. Killing of living creatures was forbidden along the route. Provisions for the retinue did not include sake or meat, and the road was swept clean and kept from any defilement. Ten officials of Fifth Rank and twenty each of Sanni (rankholders without posts) and Toneri of the Six Guards were then sent to welcome the deity at Heguri District. A new hall was built south of the palace at the Nashihara Palace and the deity was installed there. The Emperor, the Retired Emperor, and the Empress Dowager, together with Morime, worshiped at the Tōdaiji. Morime rode in a purple palanquin, riding the palanquin in the same way as the Emperor. Divine ranks were then offered to the great deity and to the goddess Hime-kami, and Tachibana-no-Moroe was commanded to tell the deity, "I earlier made an image of the Buddha Rushana, and the great deity Hirohata Hachiman secretly helped in that work. I cannot contain my utmost joy, and presume to present a crown to the great deity." The ranks of Morime and Tamaro were also advanced.

¶In the second year, the household allotments and rank-lands for the great deity and the goddess Hime-kami were increased, to a total of 1,400 households and 1,400 chō of rank-land. The granting of rank-lands to a deity began with this. Then, following an oracle of the deity Hachiman, Fujiwara-no-Asomi Otomaro was made Dazai-no-Sochi, Governor-General of the Dazaifu. In the sixth year, it came to light that Tamaro and others had plotted a curse together with Gyōshin, a monk of the Yakushiji, and Gyōshin was exiled to Shimotsuke. Tamaro and Morime were struck from the register and sentenced to distant exile. The Negi and Hafuri were appointed anew, and the Dazaifu was to inspect all the goods, including their household allotments and rank-lands. In the seventh year, following an oracle of the deity Hachiman, its allotment lands were confiscated and only the regular divine rice fields were left.

¶In the first year of Tenpyō-hōji, it was fixed that "envoys bearing offerings to the Grand Shrine shall from now on be sent from the Nakatomi, and other clans shall not be used." Originally, in the Tenpyō era, the Nakatomi had monopolized power and had excluded the Imbe from the envoys bearing offerings to the Grand Shrine (Note: the passage from "originally" onward follows the Kogo Shūi). In the seventh year, owing to a petition from Imbe-no-Sukune Mushina and others, the Imbe were again employed. At this time too a similar regulation was fixed, but in practice it was not carried out (Note: the passage from "but" onward was consulted from the Nihon Kōki and the Kogo Shūi).

¶The Deposed Emperor (Emperor Junnin) ascended the throne. Earlier, in the fifth year of Tenpyō-shōhō, the boundary of the Grand Shrine had been fixed, but because the two provinces of Ise and Shima disputed over the land, the Odare Barrier was moved to Ashibuchi. In the sixth year of Tenpyō-hōji, he offered tribute cloth to the Grand Shrine and the Kashii Mausoleum and announced the training of the army. He also offered tribute cloth and bows and arrows to the many deities of the realm; this was because he intended to attack Silla.

¶In the eighth year, when Fujiwara-no-Nakamaro had at first raised a rebellion and held out in Ōmi, offerings were made to the famous deities (Myōjin) of the country and prayers offered for the pacification of the rebels. At this time thanks were given for the fulfillment of those prayers. The title "Myōjin" appears here for the first time.

¶In the first year of Tenpyō-jingo, in the reign of Empress Shōtoku, the Empress, who had already shaved her head and taken refuge in the Buddhist path, favored the monk Dōkyō. When she reascended the throne, she held the Daijōsai. She then decreed by edict: "It is said in the world that the deities do not approach the followers of the Buddha, but the Buddhist scriptures say, 'It is the deities who protect the Buddhist Law.' Therefore it is not to be shunned that ordained monks and nuns take part in the affairs of ritual government." In the following year she appointed Dōkyō as Hōō, Dharma King (Note: following the Shoku Nihongi).

¶That the Empress went against the teaching of her ancestors and deceived the divine powers had its causes. After this, persons even appeared who presented Buddhist scriptures and ritual implements to shrines and had monks perform prayers to the deities. Shrine-temples (Jingūji) were set up at the Grand Shrine and all the great shrines of the provinces, monks became involved in sacred affairs, and the Way of the deities declined all the more (Note: following the purport of the official histories from the Shoku Nihongi onward). The Empress deeply believed in the deity Hachiman and obeyed everything that was claimed to be an oracle of the deity. Dōkyō secretly harbored the ambition of aspiring to the imperial throne, presented improper offerings widely to the many deities, and schemed among flattering courtiers in order to achieve his ambition (Note: the passage from "Dōkyō" onward was consulted from the Ruijū Kokushi).

¶In this year, following an oracle of the goddess Hachiman-Hime-no-Kami, divine allotments were offered and the rank of Ōga-no-Tamaro was restored (Note: following the Shoku Nihongi).

¶In the second year of Jingo-keiun, the four deities of Kasuga were enshrined on Mount Mikasa (Note: following the Teiō Hennenki).

¶In the third year, garments for the deities were offered at the shrines of the realm. Kanimori-no-Ōkimi, Ōi-no-Kami, Master of the Imperial Kitchen Bureau, and Fujiwara-no-Asomi Otamaro, Sachūben, Left Middle Controller, were made envoys to the Grand Shrine. One set of male and female divine garments was presented to each shrine. To the Grand Shrine and to the shrines that held the Tsukinamisai, horse figures and saddles were added. Suge-no-Asomaro, Kanzukasa of the Dazaifu, fawned upon and served Dōkyō, and at last, claiming an oracle of the deity Hachiman, proclaimed, "If Dōkyō is placed on the imperial throne, the realm will be at peace." Dōkyō believed that his scheme had succeeded, and the situation became perilous and beyond measure. But when Wake-no-Asomi Kiyomaro went as envoy to request a divine oracle, his loyalty reached the deity. The words of the deity were severe, and at length the plot of the rebellious minister could be broken by its awesome spirit. The oracle said: "Since the opening of heaven and earth, the distinction between ruler and subject has been fixed, and the heavenly succession must always be inherited by descendants of the imperial line. Sweep away at once those who do not understand what is right." These words, for ten thousand generations to come, will still make rebellious ministers and traitors fear. The details of this matter are recorded in his own biography.

¶When Emperor Kōnin ascended the throne, he banished Dōkyō (Note: following the Shoku Nihongi).

¶In the second year of Hōki, Kiyomaro was made Buzen-no-Kami, Governor of Buzen. Two years later the Dazaifu submitted a request: "Recently the Negi, Miyaji, and others of the Hachiman Shrine have been falsely claiming divine oracles and repeatedly uttering strange words. They not only disturb the state but also deceive the court, yet the provincial governors up to now have not dared to correct this. We request that the Gen-ten and Shō-ten be ordered to investigate whether it is true or false." The Kanzukasa Nakatomi-no-Asomi Ienari was then made to divine, and it was found that the Negi Karashima-no-Suguri Yosome had made false claims; Yosome and the Miyaji Usa-no-Kimi Ikemori were dismissed from office (Note: following the Usa Takusenshū). In this year, regulations were fixed for the shrine buildings, miscellaneous structures, gates, fences, and the boundaries on the four sides of the grounds of great, middle, and small shrines (Note: following the Jingi Hongen and the Zōden Gishiki).

¶In the sixth year, it was fixed that "if, on the day of distributing offerings at the Kinensai, Tsukinamisai, and Niinamesai, the Hafuribe of the provinces do not assemble at the Jingikan, a cautionary edict shall first be issued; those who still do not reform, whether or not they hold rank, shall be dismissed from office and sent back to their home provinces as a warning for the future" (Note: following the Ruijū Sandai Kyaku). The successive courts regarded the four rituals of the Kinensai, Tsukinamisai, and Niinamesai as the most important and as great affairs of state. The distribution of offerings for them by the Jingikan is called the Shido-no-Kanpei, the "Four Annual Official Offerings" (Note: the Ruijū Sandai Kyaku, Engishiki, Nenjū Gyōji Hishō, and Shosha Konkenki were consulted. Also: it is also called the "Shiji-hei" or the "Shido-hei").

¶In the seventh year, he admonished the provincial governors of the provinces and ordered them to repair shrines and be careful in rituals so as to avert disasters and portents.

¶In the eighth year, earlier, when an envoy to Tang was about to be dispatched, wind and waves had blocked the crossing and the choice of envoys had been changed several times. In this year Ono-no-Asomi Iwane, the deputy envoy, worshiped the deities of heaven and earth at the foot of Mount Kasuga.

¶In the ninth year, in the Jingo era, an island had spontaneously risen from the sea of Ōsumi. The world said it had been made by the deity Ōanamochi. In this year it was made an official shrine (Kansha).

¶In the eleventh year, the Jingikan reported: "The Ise Daijingūji (shrine-temple) is near the divine district and is frequently the cause of divine curses. Except for Iino District, it should be moved and rebuilt in another convenient place." This was permitted. He also decreed that "the gathering of mediums and diviners in groups by the common people of the capital, their reckless worship of improper cults, and their various suspicious practices with straw effigies and charms are strictly forbidden." Kudara-no-Konikishi Shuntetsu, Deputy Commander-in-Chief of the Guard of Mutsu, and others petitioned: "Formerly we were besieged by rebels, the troops were exhausted and arrows spent. At that time we prayed to eleven deities, including those of Monou and Shirakawa, and only then were we able to break the siege. Without the majesty of the deities, how could the army have been preserved? We beg that all of them be added to the shrines that receive offerings." This was permitted.

¶When Emperor Kanmu ascended the throne, he revived what had fallen into disuse, continued what had ceased, and reformed and fixed the institutions of the deities of heaven and earth (Note: the passage from "Kanmu" onward was consulted from the Nihon Kōki and the Ruijū Kokushi).

¶In the tenth year of Enryaku, someone set fire to the Grand Shrine and attacked it. One main hall, along with the treasury and the gates, was burned. Envoys were therefore sent to offer tribute cloth and apologize for the calamity. He ordered by edict that repairs be made, and also fixed that "the common people are forbidden to kill oxen to worship Karakami (continental deities)" (Note: following the Shoku Nihongi).

¶In the eleventh year, the order of serving food at the ritual affairs of the two clans Takahashi and Azumi was fixed, and Azumi-no-Sukune Tsuguhari, the Buzen, Chief of the Imperial Table, was exiled to Sado (Note: the passage from "exiled" onward follows the Ruijū Kokushi). Earlier, in the second year of Reiki, at the time of the Jinkonjikisai, Azumi-no-Sukune To, the Buzen, and Takahashi-no-Asomi Ogusuhi, the Tenzen, Assistant Chief of the Imperial Table, had disputed the order of precedence. By imperial command it was held that sacred rites have precedents from of old, and the Takahashi clan was placed first. In the sixth year of Hōki, Azumi-no-Sukune Hiroyoshi forcibly pushed forward to conduct the matter first, but Takahashi-no-Asomi Hamaro pushed him aside. When the matter ended, the office in charge imposed the penalty of purification on both. Hamaro was dissatisfied and did not comply, and when the matter reached the court, by imperial command the penalty of purification was imposed on Hiroyoshi. Hiroyoshi later added false statements to his family genealogy and submitted them, and at last obtained the earlier position, but the Takahashi clan was indignant. When the court later inspected the records of both clans, it became clear that the Takahashi clan came first, but because it concerned a decision made in a former reign, it was difficult to change at once. It was arranged that they would alternate the order in serving at each ritual, but at the rite of last year Tsuguhari pushed forward first every time, so by the court's ruling he was stopped. Tsuguhari then withdrew and left. The matter was referred for discussion to the Daijōkan, Council of State, and the report said: "Having respectfully examined the Nihon Shoki, we find that the Takahashi clan's involvement in the imperial table began when Iwakamutsukari presented a dish of clam namasu in the court of Makimuku-no-Hishiro (the reign of Emperor Keikō). The Azumi clan began when Ōhama-no-Sukune took charge of the sea people in the court of Karushima-no-Akari (the reign of Emperor Ōjin). Yet the Azumi clan's claim says, 'The distant ancestor Ōtakunarifuki first served the imperial table in the reign of Emperor Mimaki (Emperor Sujin).' Now, on examining their private record, the facts have been added afterwards, the handwriting still survives, and it is clear that it is false. According to what the official histories record, Mutsukari achieved merit in an earlier age and Ōhama made his name in a later one. Between them lie five reigns and more than two hundred years, and there is no room for doubt about the order of precedence. Moreover, Tsuguhari made false claims to deceive the Emperor and withdrew from court on his own authority, lacking the courtesy due from a subject. By law he should be sentenced to hanging and removal from the register." At this time it was fixed that the Takahashi clan came first, and by special consideration Tsuguhari was sentenced to exile (Note: following the Takahashi-shi Bun as cited in the Honchō Getsuryō).

¶Earlier, it had been the custom that a Nakatomi appointed Jingihaku, Director of the Jingikan, was not removed from office even when in mourning, on the ground that he was the chief priest of Amaterasu-Ōmikami. At this time it was fixed that "even if he is not himself in mourning, it is not fitting for him to serve the deities. He should complete his period of mourning" (Note: following the Nihon Kiryaku).

¶In the thirteenth year, the Hirano Shrine was first built (Note: following the Ruijū Sandai Kyaku, the Gōke Shidai, and the Ichidai Yōki), and the ancestral deities of the maternal relatives of the throne were worshiped there (Note: the purport of the Nihon Shoki, Shinsen Shōjiroku, Honchō Getsuryō, and Fukuro Zōshi was weighed).

¶In the seventeenth year, the shrines that should receive offerings at the Kinensai were fixed (Note: following the Ruijū Kokushi). In winter, he decreed by edict: "Holding festivals at night in the two capitals and the Kinai, with drinking parties, had already been forbidden. Yet the offices in charge have been lenient and have not enforced it, and in the end sake and food have been served, stirring up a disorderly custom. Nothing more than this violates the law and disturbs public morals. From now on it is strictly forbidden. Festivals shall be held in the daytime and must not extend past sunset. If any still do not reform, both the organizers and the participants shall be held guilty of violating the imperial order" (Note: following the Ruijū Sandai Kyaku).

¶He then decreed: "The Izumo-no-Kuni-no-Miyatsuko concurrently serves as the chief priest. On the day of a new appointment it has been the custom to divorce his lawful wife and marry a commoner's daughter, calling her the 'Jingū Uneme,' and then take her as a concubine, using the pretext of sacred rites to encourage licentious customs. The Way of the deities becomes ever more secularized; how can such a thing be allowed? By the old rule it should certainly be strictly suppressed. If there are unavoidable circumstances, the provincial governor shall divine and fix one woman to serve. The Kannushi of Munakata in Chikuzen is to be treated likewise" (Note: following the Ruijū Kokushi and the Ruijū Sandai Kyaku).

¶In the eighteenth year, he decreed: "If reverence is lacking in ritual, the deities do not accept it. The two festivals of Hirose and Tatsuta are to calm wind damage and pray for abundant harvests of the five grains. Yet the provincial governor of Yamato has been negligent and irreverent, sending a Shishō, a clerk, who merely gets through the ritual in a perfunctory way. The lack of response to prayer is precisely for this reason. From now on, either the Kami or the Suke shall observe abstinence and serve with care. If there are circumstances, it is permitted to send a Jō, third-ranking official, in his stead" (Note: following the Nihon Kōki).

¶In the twentieth year, the people of Echizen were forbidden to slaughter oxen to worship deities (Note: following the Ruijū Kokushi). He also fixed a system of purification penalties according to the gravity of the offense. "Whoever neglects the Daijōsai, or during abstinence offers condolences or visits the sick, signs documents of punishment or execution, carries out punishments, or eats meat and so becomes involved in defilement, shall be subject to the penalty of the Great Purification (Ōharae). The materials for it are: one horse, two long swords, two bows, two sets of arrows, six small knives, six kin each of cotton fiber, hemp, abalone, bonito, various dried goods, seaweed, and arame, six tan of labor-tax cloth, six each of hoes, cups, and plates, six each of deer and boar skins, six to each of sake and polished rice, six bundles of unhusked rice, six sheng of salt, six food mats, six rolls of rush mats, fifteen bundles of oak leaves, four gourds, four switches, and one mat. Officials are dismissed from the post they concurrently hold. Whoever neglects the Niinamesai, Chinkonsai, Kannamesai, Kinensai, Tsukinamisai, or Kanmisosai, strikes the Negi or the Uchindo of the Grand Shrine, defiles the imperial food, or on the days of abstinence for the Niinamesai and the various other rites violates the six prohibitions such as condolences and visits to the sick, shall be subject to the penalty of the Upper Purification (Jōharae). Its materials follow those of the Great Purification but are made lighter. Whoever neglects the Ōimisai, Kazenokami-no-Matsuri, Hanashizume-no-Matsuri, Saikusa-no-Matsuri, Hoshizume-no-Matsuri, Ainiesai, Michiae-no-Matsuri, Hirano Festival, Sono-Karakami Festival, Kasuga Festival, and the like, strikes the sacred torch of the Tōza of the Monoimi, violates the Monoimi woman, touches defilement and handles the imperial food, and also on the days of abstinence for the Imibi and other rites strikes the Hafuri, Negi, or persons of the divine households involved in the rites, or violates the six prohibitions such as condolences and visits to the sick, shall be subject to the penalty of the Middle Purification (Chūharae). Whoever omits the various rituals, strikes the Hafuri, Negi, or divine-household persons involved in the rites on days of abstinence, or violates the various prohibitions, shall be subject to the penalty of the Lower Purification (Geharae). The materials of the Middle Purification and below also follow the Great Purification, each reduced accordingly. Hitherto, violations concerning sacred affairs were punished with the penalty of purification and with redemption, but there were two kinds of purification, good and evil, and they were imposed repeatedly on a single person; the regulations were cumbersome and the cost great. Matters were too minute and severe, greatly harming the people. Therefore regulations have been set up in this way, relaxing some and tightening others. In heavy cases such as striking and causing injury, in addition to the purification ablution, the offender shall be punished under the law. Brawls outside the period of abstinence are punished under the code, and this does not apply to them. Also, when the Hafuri, Negi, and others brawl with others or commit other crimes that call for punishment, they shall first be dismissed from their posts and then punished. When a commoner of a divine household commits a fault, he shall be punished according to the law after the period of abstinence has ended." He then decreed: "According to the Ryō, the Chō, Yō, and land taxes of the divine households are all to be inspected by the provincial governors. Since it has already been fixed that they inspect them, it is contrary to reason that the provincial governors should monopolize even their expenditure. The provincial governors and the Kannushi shall distribute the materials for rituals, and record and report what remains to await approval" (Note: following the Ruijū Sandai Kyaku).

¶Ise submitted a petition: "The district governors of the two districts of Take and Watarai, using sacred rites as a pretext, often neglect their duties. We request that they be punished outside the sacred precinct." This was permitted (Note: following the Ruijū Kokushi and the Ruijū Sandai Kyaku).

¶In the twenty-fourth year, Ishikawa-no-Asomi Kibihito was made envoy for the construction of the Isonokami Shrine. The total number of persons employed in the work was more than 157,000. When the Emperor asked, "What is the reason the shrine differs from other shrines?" someone reported, "The divine storehouse holds many weapons, all of which have been stored by the successive courts and are important for emergencies. They should be moved to nearby land." They were therefore moved to Kadono District in Yamashiro. Just then Furu-no-Sukune Takaniwa, a Monjōshō, student of letters, reported: "According to the petition of the commoners of the divine households, 'Recently strange events have often occurred at the shrine, and we do not know the reason.' Soon after, the divine treasures were moved, and the strange events probably originate from this. We request that the move be canceled." The Emperor decreed, "The divinations are all auspicious. What inconvenience could there be?" But soon the treasure storehouse collapsed of itself. Around the time when the Emperor's illness did not recover, Takeruibe-no-Chitsugu, a Ten'i, palace-gate official, was appointed envoy for the Kasuga Festival and, hearing in Nara that there was a shrine maiden in divine possession, stopped by to inquire; the shrine maiden described in detail that "because the divine treasures have been moved, the divine spirit is violently angry and causing a curse." Chitsugu returned and reported this in secret. The Emperor then commanded the Jingikan and the offices in charge to have two tents set up at the shrine, offerings of food, garments, and the like placed there, and sent Chitsugu as envoy to summon the shrine maiden to pacify the spirit. He sent Sakura-no-Ōkimi, Kanuchi-no-Kami, Director of Smiths, and Ōnakatomi-no-Asomi Matanari, Jingi-no-Taifu, Senior Assistant Director of the Jingikan, to offer tribute cloth and a mirror in apology. He also prayed for recovery from the illness and had the weapons returned to their original place.

¶In the first year of Daidō, in the reign of Emperor Heizei, earlier the two clans Nakatomi and Imbe had been lodging complaints against each other. The Nakatomi claimed: "The Imbe were originally charged with making the offerings, not with proclaiming the norito. It is therefore improper to make the Imbe the offering envoys." The Imbe claimed: "Presenting offerings and praying is precisely the duty of the Imbe. The Imbe should be made the offering envoys and the Nakatomi the purification envoys." They argued with each other, each with its own grounds. At this time the following ruling was made: "According to the Nihon Shoki, when Amaterasu-Ōmikami hid in the Heavenly Rock Cave, Ame-no-Koyane-no-Mikoto, the distant ancestor of the Nakatomi, and Futodama-no-Mikoto, the distant ancestor of the Imbe, both performed prayers. If so, the matter of prayer is something in which both clans should take part. Also the Jingi-ryō says: 'At the Kinensai and Tsukinamisai, the Nakatomi proclaim the norito and the Imbe distribute the offerings. On the day of accession, the Nakatomi present the felicitations of the heavenly deities and the Imbe present the mirror and sword of the divine seal. At the Great Purification of the sixth and twelfth months, the Nakatomi present the purification hemp, the Fumibe present the purification sword and finish reciting the words of purification, and the Nakatomi then proclaim the purification norito. When it is necessary to present offerings to the various shrines outside the regular rituals, persons of Fifth Rank or above who have been found auspicious by divination are all to be assigned to it.' For envoys bearing offerings, use these two clans, and always in equal halves. In all other matters follow solely the provisions of the Ryō" (Note: following the Nihon Kōki). At that time the Nakatomi were flourishing, but the Imbe were not. Imbe-no-Sukune Hironari, of Senior Sixth Rank Upper, was deeply indignant at the decline of the Way of the deities and harbored the resolve to return to antiquity (Note: "Senior Sixth Rank Upper" follows the Nihon Kōki). When the Emperor happened to ask Hironari about ancient traditions, Hironari said, "Ever since writing came into use, people have not liked to speak of antiquity; frivolous and showy things have arisen in competition, and people have instead come to mock the old. As the age changes, only new things are honored. Even the national histories and family records have omissions. If we do not speak now, I fear that the tradition will be cut off." He wrote one volume, the Kogo Shūi, and presented it in the second year of Daidō. Its outline was as follows: "In remote antiquity, Ame-no-Futodama-no-Mikoto, distant ancestor of the Imbe clan, led the ancestors of the Imbe of Awa, Sanuki, Kii, Tsukushi, Ise, and others, and of the Tamatsukuri of Izumo, made offerings, built the hall, and together with the ancestors of the Nakatomi, Sarume, and other clans prayed and proclaimed norito in service of the heavenly ancestor, achieved merit at the Heavenly Rock Cave, and served the imperial grandchild. When Emperor Jinmu founded the capital, his descendant Ame-no-Tomi-no-Mikoto led the many hereditary groups, made divine treasures such as mirrors, jewels, spears, and shields, built the main hall, presented the mirror and sword, set out offerings and jewels, and together with the Nakatomi took charge of the ritual office. It was handed down generation after generation, and the ancestral undertaking never ceased. By the court of Ohari-da (the reign of Emperor Suiko), the descendants of Futodama hung on by a thread, thin as a sash. Through the court's favor the fallen was revived and the ceased continued, and they at last returned to their office. In the court of Naniwa-no-Nagara (the reign of Emperor Kōtoku), Imbe-no-Obito Sakashi, of Junior Flowery Rank Lower, was given the post of Jinkan-no-Kami. But the descendants of Sakashi could not continue the office, and gradually declined down to the present day. When the Yakusa-no-Kabane, the eight-grade system of titles, was revised and fixed in the court of Kiyomihara (the reign of Emperor Tenmu), only the order of that year's services was valued, and the merit of having descended from heaven was not considered. The second-grade title Asomi was granted to the Nakatomi clan, with a long sword added. The third-grade title Sukune was granted to the Imbe clan, with a short sword added. It was not until the Taihō era that records were first compiled, but the registers of the deities still lacked clear standards, and the rites of ritual lacked fixed forms. In the Tenpyō era the Jinchō, Register of Deities, was made, but the Nakatomi monopolized power and took and discarded as they pleased. Those with connections were all listed even for small rituals, while those without connections were left abandoned even though their shrines were great. The household allotments and taxes of the various shrines were all gathered into a single clan. From the descent from heaven to the eastern campaign, the names of the many deities who attended and served are clearly recorded in the national histories. Some received the stern command of heaven and became guardians of the precious foundation; some met a flourishing destiny and assisted in the great undertaking of the sacred regalia. If so, in repaying merit and rewarding toil they should properly share equally in the ritual register, yet there are cases not yet included among those receiving offerings. Like the Hata clan, the Aya clan, and the naturalized people from Paekche, each had merit in the tens of thousands, and these should be rewarded. Now, although shrines to them exist, they do not yet share in the regular offerings. How much more is this so for the divine sword Kusanagi, which is truly the sacred seal of heaven. Since the year when Yamato-Takeru-no-Mikoto returned in triumph, it has been kept in Owari. When outside enemies secretly tried to steal it, it could not leave the border. The spiritual efficacy of the deity can be known from this. If so, on the day of presenting offerings, equal respect should be paid to it, yet it has been left missing for a long time and its rite has not been performed. This is the first omission. Now, to honor ancestors and revere the main line is first among the teachings of ritual. Amaterasu-Ōmikami is truly the ancestor and the main line, supremely exalted and without peer. All the other deities are children and subjects. Who could oppose her? Yet now, on the day the Jingikan distributes offerings, the Ise Shrine is ranked after the other deities. This is the second omission. Amaterasu-Ōmikami originally dwelt in the same hall as the Emperor, and therefore the ceremony of serving her is also based on the unity of Emperor and deity and began in the age of heaven. The Nakatomi and Imbe clans together added their prayers to the Sun Deity, and the ancestor of the Sarume also soothed the deity's anger. If so, the duties of these three clans should not be separated. Yet now the Miyaji of Ise is entrusted solely to the Nakatomi, and the other two clans are not used. This is the third omission. Now, in building shrine halls, all should follow the duties of the age of the deities. The Imbe office leads the Imbe of the two villages of Miki and Araka, fells timber with the sacred axe and digs with the sacred spade, and only afterwards do the craftsmen begin. After the construction is finished, the Imbe perform the Tonosai and Monsai, the rites of the hall and the gate, and only then does the deity take up residence in the hall. Yet now, in building the shrine of Ise and the Daijō Palace, the Imbe are not involved at all. This is the fourth omission. Moreover, the Tonosai and Monsai have been the duty of the Imbe clan since Futodama. Even so, the Nakatomi and Imbe have been appointed together to the Jingikan and served together. Therefore, on the day of offering the rites, the address of the Ministry of the Imperial Household said, 'From now on we shall serve the Tonosai; the Nakatomi and Imbe serve at the August Gate.' Yet in the Hōki era, Nakatomi-no-Asomi Tsune, Kunai-no-Shōfu, Junior Assistant Minister of the Imperial Household, arbitrarily changed the address to say, 'The Nakatomi lead the Imbe and serve at the August Gate.' The Ministry of the Imperial Household simply followed it, made it a permanent custom, and it has not been corrected down to this day. This is the fifth omission. Furthermore, from the age of the deities, there was no difference in rank between the two clans in serving sacred affairs. But partway through power came to be concentrated in one clan. The Kanzukasa of the Saikūryō, Bureau of the Saigū, had been an office of Seventh Rank for both clans, but at the beginning of Enryaku the Imbe were deliberately lowered to Eighth Rank, and have still not been restored. This is the sixth omission. In presenting offerings to the various deities, both clans should take part in the matter, yet now the Kanzukasa of the Dazaifu is entrusted solely to the Nakatomi. This is the seventh omission. In the great shrines of the provinces too, the Imbe are not used. This is the eighth omission. The rite of Chinkon derives from the traces of Ame-no-Uzume-no-Mikoto, so the office of Mikannagi, shrine maiden, should be entrusted to the original clan. Yet now they are selected from other clans. This is the ninth omission. In making the great offerings too, the duties of the age of the deities should be followed. The Imbe office leads the various clans engaged in making them and has prepared them according to precedent. If so, the Kanto-mo-no-O, divine attendants of the Jingikan, should properly include clans such as the Nakatomi, Imbe, Sarume, Kagamitsukuri, Tamatsukuri, Tatetsukuri, Kanhatori, Shitori, and Omi. Yet now there are only two or three clans such as the Nakatomi and Imbe, and the others are not even considered for selection. The descendants of the deities are scattered, and their bloodlines are about to die out. This is the tenth omission. Also, in the ninth year of Tenpyō-shōhō, an oral order of the Left Controller's Office said, 'From now on, the offering envoys to the Ise Grand Shrine shall be drawn solely from the Nakatomi clan, and other clans shall not be sent.' This regulation was in fact not carried out, but it is still recorded as precedent of the office and has not yet been deleted. This is the eleventh omission. Now the affairs of the age of the deities resemble the legends of Pangu (the creator of Chinese myth), and it is truly hard to make people believe doubtful tales. But I fear that, for the traces of the spiritual efficacy of our country's deities, people of later ages will come to see the present as people of the present see antiquity. I, the foolish subject Hironari, am old and feeble, and have written down here the omissions of the law, but many are still missing. Now, in this sagely and enlightened reign, the Emperor is fixing institutions in accordance with the times and wishing to revive what has fallen and continue what has ceased. If in the year when these regulations are fixed the rites of those rituals are not settled, I fear that in secret the present age will come to be seen as people see antiquity. I, the foolish subject Hironari, have passed eighty years of age. My feeling of loyalty, like that of a dog or horse, grows ever more earnest morning and evening. I rejoice deeply that I have met the happy occasion of being asked to seek out antiquity, so that these words will not be buried as a mere pretext. I pray that this writing may reach the Emperor's eyes on high and be seen by Your Majesty" (Note: following the Kogo Shūi).

¶Originally, in the Enryaku era, a book of ceremonies was ordered compiled by imperial command, but the work was not completed (Note: following the Ruijū Kokushi). Only the Kannushi of the Grand Shrine and others each compiled and presented one volume of the ceremonial register of the two shrines. Matters of the Grand Shrine can be known in detail from these (Note: following the Daijingū Gishikichō and the Toyukeguū Gishikichō). At this time discussion of compiling a book of ceremonies arose again. That is why Hironari also made such a proposal (Note: following the Kogo Shūi). When the book of ceremonies was compiled in the Kōnin era, his words were probably adopted (Note: following the preface of the Kōnin Kyaku-shiki and the Hōka Monjo Mokuroku).

¶In the third year, he decreed by edict: "The loose abstinence for Great Rites is changed from three months to one month" (Note: following the Ruijū Kokushi).

¶In the first year of Kōnin, in the reign of Emperor Saga, the Kamo Saiin, the Kamo Abstinence Court, was first established (Note: following the Kijo-shō and the Ichidai Yōki).

¶In the second year, he decreed by edict: "According to the Ryō, on the days of loose abstinence for rituals, the superior announces it to the various offices at dawn. But there were persons who violated the prohibitions before the various offices had yet been informed. From now on the announcement shall be made on the day before the loose abstinence, and this shall be made regular practice" (Note: following the Ruijū Sandai Kyaku).

¶In the third year, he decreed by edict: "That the common people of the provinces, using divine words as a pretext, sometimes speak of matters concerning the state and sometimes recklessly preach calamity and fortune, thereby disrupting the law and breaking order, is a thing than which none is worse. From now on, if anyone recklessly claims a divine oracle, regardless of whether man or woman, they shall be dealt with as the case demands. However, where there is clear spiritual efficacy, the provincial governor shall inspect it and report on the basis of the facts" (Note: following the Nihon Kōki and the Ruijū Sandai Kyaku).

¶In the fifth year, because of the Emperor's illness, the Miagaina-no-Matsuri, the Rite of Atonement, was held for the first time. From then on it became the custom for the Mikannagi to conduct it from the first to the eighth day of the sixth and twelfth months (Note: following the old record cited in the Nenjū Gyōji Hishō). He also decreed by edict: "In provinces such as the Kinai, Ōmi, and Tanba, drought damage has often been suffered in recent years, but the provincial governors have been neglectful of prayer. If capable officials exert utmost sincerity, there will surely be a response. From now on, when there is a drought, the chief official shall purify himself, personally pray for sweet rain, and strive to be careful and reverent, and shall not be careless. Let this be regular practice" (Note: following the Nihon Kōki).

¶In the eighth year, he decreed by edict: "At the Kinensai, Tsukinamisai, and Niinamesai, the Hafuribe of the various shrines should attend according to precedent, receive the offerings, and conduct the rites. But in recent years the Hafuribe have been negligent and have not assembled, and offerings have been left idle in the storehouses of the offices. From now on, if this occurs, follow uniformly the system of the Hōki era, dismiss them from their posts, and replace them" (Note: following the Ruijū Sandai Kyaku).

¶In the eleventh year, the book of ceremonies was compiled, and the rites of Great and Small Rites and the internal and external ritual ceremonies were all put in order. Even in the Jōgan and Engi periods, additions and deletions were still made. The ritual codes concerning the deities became ever more complete (Note: following the prefaces of the Kōnin Kyaku-shiki and the Jōgan-shiki, and the Jōgan Gishiki, Engishiki, and Hōka Monjo Mokuroku). Emperor Junna, at his accession Daijōsai, citing the shortage of state finances and the exhaustion of the people, followed the deliberation of the ministers, dispensed with showy ornament, and strove for simplicity and economy. The details are recorded in the following volume. The timing of the Kinensai, Tsukinamisai, Jinkonjikisai, Ōharae, Niinamesai, and Chinkonsai was then fixed (Note: the passage from "then fixed" onward follows the Nenjū Gyōji Hishō).

¶In the fourth year of Tenchō, the Emperor fell ill. A diviner said, "Because Tō-ji felled trees at the Inari Shrine and used them as timber for the pagoda of its imperial votive temple, there is a curse." Envoys were accordingly sent to confer rank on the deity and apologize (Note: following the Ruijū Kokushi). The monk Kūkai had previously made the Inari shrine the Chinjugami, tutelary deity, of Tō-ji (Note: following the Nijūnisha Hon'en, the Ainōshō, and the Shoshin-ki). This claim probably came from the cunning scheme of the Buddhist clergy, who wished to have their own so-called tutelary deity revered (Note: the purport of the Ruijū Kokushi, the Ainōshō, and the Nijūnisha Hon'en was consulted). At that time the Buddhist clergy were changing the custom of reverence for the deities and trying to bring people to take refuge in the Buddhist Law, all taking the old methods of Gyōki as their model. They sought to win the people's hearts by using divine oracles as a pretext. Thus the monk Saichō founded the Enryakuji under the pretext of the Hie deity, and Kūkai likewise opened Kōyasan by falsifying an oracle of the deity of Niu. The two monks, with extraordinary talent, forced through strange doctrines, confused deities and buddhas, and misled a generation. Their disciples vied to imitate them, even the court came to accept their words, and the divine powers at last suffered their encroachment (Note: the Genkō Shakusho, Shōryōshū, Teiō Hennenki, and Shūchūshō were consulted).

¶When Emperor Ninmyō ascended the throne, he sent Wake-no-Asomi Matsuna, Iyo-no-Gon-no-Kami, Provisional Governor of Iyo, to offer the imperial sword and tribute cloth to the Hachiman Shrine and the Kashii Mausoleum and report the accession (Note: following the Shoku Nihon Kōki). Matsuna was a son of Kiyomaro (Note: following the Wake Keizu). From then on, at each emperor's accession, it became the rule to have a member of the Wake clan serve as the envoy to make this report (Note: following the Sandai Jitsuroku, Nihon Kiryaku, Saikyūki, and Wake Keizu). This is called the "Usa Wake-shi" (Note: following the Hyakurenshō). The Emperor was exceptionally fond of luxury, and his Daijōsai was extremely showy in its decoration and exhausted all the skill of craftsmanship, no longer the simple system of old (Note: following the Shoku Nihon Kōki and the Honchō Monzui). The details are recorded in the following volume.

¶In the first year of Jōwa, land in Kadono District of Yamashiro was granted to Tomo-no-Sukune and others to be used for the rites of their Ujigami, clan deity. He also decreed by edict: "Persons of Fifth Rank or above of the Ono, Ōkasuga, and other clans are permitted, at the two spring and autumn festivals, to visit the Ono Clan Shrine in Ōmi without waiting for an official order" (Note: following the Shoku Nihon Kōki). By the custom of that time, each clan worshiped its own ancestral deity, and this was called the "Ujigami." Its origin is ancient. In the reign of Emperor Sujin, the ancestor of the Mononobe-no-Muraji worshiped the Isonokami Shrine, and in the reign of Emperor Nintoku, the ancestor of the Takeda-no-Muraji worshiped the Takeda Shrine, so the name Ujigami already existed (Note: following the Sendai Kuji Hongi and the Shinsen Shōjiroku. Also: on consideration, the Isonokami Shrine originally worshiped the Futsu-no-Mitama Sword, so calling it the Ujigami of the Mononobe is not properly appropriate; but because the auspicious treasures, the ancestral deity of that clan, are also enshrined in the main shrine, it may be called Ujigami. It is added for reference). Each clan called its kin as a whole "Ujibito," and the person who led the Ujibito was called "Ujinokami." Whenever there was a ritual, leading the Ujibito to perform rites at the ancestral shrine was named "Ujigami-matsuri" (Note: the Nihon Shoki, Shoku Nihongi, Shoku Nihon Kōki, Sandai Jitsuroku, Shinsen Shōjiroku, Jōgan Gishiki, Engishiki, and Man'yōshū were consulted). In later ages, as people moved about and settled elsewhere, they became unable to worship the shrines of their original ancestors. Even so, they worshiped the deity that had been enshrined in the land where they had originally lived, and called it the Ujigami. Calling themselves "Ujiko" is also a remnant of this (Note: following the Ga'un Nikkenroku and the Shoshin-ki).

¶In this year, fifteen shrines of the deities in five districts of Iwami were first added to the Kansha, official shrines. This was because their spiritual efficacy had well answered the prayers of officials and people.

¶In the sixth year, it was fixed that "for the Kehi Shrine in Echizen, the provincial governor's involvement in its miscellaneous affairs is suspended, and it is placed directly under the Jingikan."

¶In the following year, Izu made the following report: "In Kamitsushima in Kamo District there is the deity Awa, who is the original consort of the Mishima Shrine. There is also her child deity Monoimina-no-Mikoto. From the seventh month of the fifth year of Jōwa, fire appeared in the sea on both sides of the island, great rocks shook and moved, the force of the flames reached heaven, the light of the sun became dim, and ash fell throughout the territory. We then assembled many Hafuri and had them divine the sign of the fault, and the result was: 'Although the deity Awa is the original consort of Mishima, only the later consort has been granted a court rank, and the original consort has not yet been granted a rank. That is why she is showing prodigies. If the Negi, Hafuri, provincial governors, and district governors do not report this state of affairs to the court, calamity will surely occur. If it is done as we desire, the realm will be at peace and the grain will ripen abundantly.' In the seventh month of this year, the clouds and mist first cleared. Looking over the island, there was the form of a palace, built of stone, with gates, steps, fences, and walls all complete. The five-colored sand and earth shone brilliantly, and its skillful beauty was beyond words, truly something to which the divine spirits responded." By imperial command, ranks were then conferred on the two deities (Note: following the Shoku Nihon Kōki).

¶In the year of his accession, Emperor Montoku decreed that the deity Tsunosakuhiko of Tōtōmi be ranked among the official shrines. This was in accordance with the request of the provincial governor, so that the deity might be asked to pray for the people's benefit. In autumn, he sent Kamakura-no-Ōkimi, Shōnagon, Junior Counselor, and others to offer tribute cloth to the Grand Shrine, and added five horses. The origin of presenting horses to deities probably lies here. He then held a Great Purification before the Kenreimon gate, and sent Shimae-no-Ōkimi, Jijū, Chamberlain, to the Grand Shrine, Nakatomi-no-Asomi Yasuyuki, Jingi-no-Taifu, to the Kamo Great Shrine, and Urabe-no-Narimoto, Jingi-no-Gon-no-Shōjō, Provisional Junior Secretary of the Jingikan, to the Owari Great Shrine. He also distributed tribute cloth to the Myōjin of the realm and reported the auspicious signs of sweet dew and a white turtle (Note: following the Montoku Jitsuroku).

¶In the first year of Ninju, he decreed by edict: "Last year I had particular thoughts. As for the deities of the realm, great and small, those already ranked among the official shrines and those not yet entered in the public registers, those with rank shall have one more grade added, and those without rank shall be newly granted Sixth Rank. However, the Myōjin of the great shrines, even if said to have no rank, shall be given Junior Fifth Rank Lower. Yet, considering this now, there are four grades even within Sixth Rank, and doubts will surely arise in actual operation. Excluding Fifth Rank and above, regardless of whether they have rank or not, all shall be granted Senior Sixth Rank Upper" (Note: following the Montoku Jitsuroku and the Ruijū Sandai Kyaku). The system of Hon'i, ranks, had been intended to order the exalted and humble among the royal family and ministers, and originally had no connection with the deities (Note: following the Ryō no Gige). Only once, because the deities of Takechi, Musa, Musa, and others had shown spiritual efficacy, Emperor Tenmu had issued an edict raising their ranks and having them worshiped. If so, there had originally been grades of exalted and humble ritual even among the deities (Note: following the Nihon Shoki). But the details of that system are not clear. In the period of Tenpyō-shōhō and Tenpyō-jingo, ranks, household allotments, and rank-lands were offered to the deity Hachiman, and that system exactly matched the numbers of fief households and rank-lands for royal family and ministers. But in other cases, for example the deities Isonokami and Ōyamazumi of Iyo, although divine ranks and household allotments were each given, they did not follow the pattern for the royal family and ministers, and the grades were not necessarily fixed on the basis of the system of the Ryō. Only the conferring of rank on deities began here. At that time the monk Dōkyō was secretly monopolizing power and sought to achieve his ambitions by borrowing the authority of the deities. This system may perhaps also have come from that intention (Note: following the Shoku Nihongi). The words of Wake-no-Matsuna, "Dōkyō harbored the ambition of aspiring to the throne and presented improper offerings widely to the many deities," probably refer to things of this kind (Note: following the Ruijū Kokushi).

¶But the system of conferring rank later at last became customary. From the Hōki era to the Kōnin era, when a shrine's rites were honored in thanks for answered prayers, ranks and merit decorations were all offered, but their number was still small (Note: following the Shoku Nihongi and the Nihon Kiryaku). After the Jōwa era, conferrals of rank on many deities increased day by day (Note: following the Shoku Nihon Kōki). At this time, ranks came to be conferred on shrines of the realm, great and small, alike (Note: following the Montoku Jitsuroku). Coming down to the Ninna era, there was no year in which conferrals and promotions were not made (Note: following the Sandai Jitsuroku). But they were not necessarily accompanied by offerings of household allotments or rank-lands, nor did they strictly order the exalted and humble among the deities. For shrines of the provinces and districts, regardless of whether their original awesome power was marked, if prayers in times of drought, war, or epidemic were answered, ranks and merit decorations were always granted, specially honoring the shrine in order to calm the people's hearts. Hence even when the same deity was worshiped, different shrines might have different ranks. In the meantime some shrines were assigned household allotments and rank-lands, but these too were not all based on rank. When ranks were conferred on the various deities, the imperial proclamation (senmyō) always stated "we present the august crown (mikagafuri)." Although the names of the titles and merit grades were the same as those of the royal family and ministers, their exaltation was greatly different, humans and deities were naturally distinguished, and they were never to be confused. Only that there are shrines that have never been offered ranks, such as the Grand Shrine and the Hinokuma and Kunikakasu shrines, is probably because their dignity is exceptional compared with other deities (Note: the purport of the official histories from the Shoku Nihongi onward, and of the Engishiki, was followed. Also: on consideration, according to the Tsunenobu-kyō Haha Shū, when Minamoto-no-Tsunenobu was granted Senior Fourth Rank Lower, he did not get down from his carriage when passing in front of the Kitano Shrine. When his mother asked the reason, Tsunenobu answered, "The regulations say that a person of Fourth Rank does not bow to one of Second Rank. The deity Sugawara, during his life, did not rise above Second Rank. Even a deity would surely not accept what does not accord with ritual propriety." The Kojidan and the Tōsai Zuihitsu also record this story. At that time, some seem to have taken it as a maxim. But this is a theory that confuses humans and deities, and is probably not the original purport of the system. It is added for reference).

¶In the second year of Saikō, the Jingikan reported: "Shrines in Musashi, Shimōsa, Awa, Hitachi, Wakasa, Tango, Harima, Aki, Kii, Awa, and other provinces, which take part in the Kinensai, Tsukinamisai, and Niinamesai, ought to receive offerings according to the regulations. But in recent years they have been negligent and have not come to receive them at all. This is because the distance is far. We request that envoys be dispatched to present them." The report was permitted, and he also decreed by edict: "From now on, they shall be sent attached to the envoys such as those of the Daichō, the great register, delivering tribute goods. The chief officials shall have them presented with care and reverence, and shall not be careless" (Note: following the Ruijū Sandai Kyaku).

¶In the third year, Hitachi reported that "the two deities Ōnamuchi and Sukunahikona have descended to Ōarai Isozaki in Kashima District." They were therefore enshrined as official shrines (Note: following the Montoku Jitsuroku).