Biographies CLXV: Foreign Peoples, Part VII: Balhae, First Half

¶The state of Balhae originally arose from a group of the Sumo Malgal who had been subject to Goguryeo; its ruling surname was Dae (Note: following the Tang shu). In the first year of Emperor Tenji's reign (662), when Goguryeo was destroyed by Tang (Note: following the Nihon Shoki), the Dae clan led their people to take refuge at Dongmosan in the land of Eullu, where they built walls and fortifications and settled. There was a man named Dae Jo-yeong, valiant and skilled at riding and archery. The people of Goguryeo and the Malgal gradually came over to him. Dae Jo-yeong then founded a state and styled himself King of Jin (Jin-guk wang) (Note: following the Dongguk Tonggam). His territory bordered Silla to the south, reached the sea to the east, and extended to the Khitan in the west (Note: following the Tang shu); he held in its entirety the old land of Buyeo, Okjeo, and Joseon (Note: following the Tang shu and the Dongguk Tonggam). His realm measured two thousand li across. It had no system of prefectures, counties, or post stations, but villages lay everywhere. In general, in the Malgal settlements the men of Goguryeo served as village heads; the head of a large village was called dodok (governor-general), the next below him a jasa (prefect), and those below them suryeong (chieftains). The land was extremely cold and unsuited to paddy fields. The customs of the people showed a good understanding of writing. In the sixth year of Wadō in the reign of Emperor Genmei (713), Dae Jo-yeong received a title from Tang and was enfeoffed as Prince of the Balhae Commandery (Note: following the Ruijū Kokushi). From then on he abandoned the name Malgal and called himself solely Balhae. In the third year of Yōrō in the reign of Emperor Genshō (719), Dae Jo-yeong died and his son Mu-ye succeeded him (Note: following the Tang shu). In the fourth year of Jinki in the reign of Emperor Shōmu (727), Mu-ye sent the Ningyuan General Go In-ui and others to Japan as envoys, but they lost their way and came ashore in the land of the Emishi. Go In-ui and his companions were seized and killed; only the chieftain Go Je-deok and seven others barely escaped and, bearing the state letter, entered the capital. In the first month of the following year (728), the Emperor appeared in the Daigokuden. Go Je-deok and the others presented tribute, offering the state letter and their gifts. The letter said: "Mu-ye humbly addresses you. Though mountains and rivers divide our borders and our lands differ, each time I hear tell of the manners of your honored country, my admiration and respect only deepen. I humbly consider that the Great King, having received the mandate of the Heavenly Court, opened the foundations of Japan, and that generation after generation has added to its radiance, so that his lineage may extend a hundred generations. Mu-ye, unworthy as he is, governs one among the many states, and has the honor of holding together the various peoples of the borderlands. I have recovered the old territory of Goguryeo and carry on the surviving customs of Buyeo. But the road, as if at the edge of heaven, is steep and distant, and we have long been parted by the sea; no tidings have passed between us, and we have not even been able to inquire after each other's joys and sorrows. Wishing to open friendly relations and to forge ties of mutual aid, and to accord with the precedents of former times, I propose to begin from this day to send envoys and establish the good relations of neighboring states. I respectfully send the Ningyuan General and Lang General Go In-ui, the Youjiang General and Guoyi Commandant Deok Ju, and the Divisional General Sa Hang-nu (Note: also written Sa Na-nu), twenty-four men in all, with this letter, and together with it offer three hundred sable pelts. Though they are local products and humble, I present them as a small token of my sincerity. A gift of furs is nothing grand, and I am only the more ashamed. The affairs of my state are limited, and I cannot say when we may meet face to face; but I wish to exchange letters as occasion allows, and to deepen forever the friendship of neighbors." The Emperor issued an edict conferring ranks on Go Je-deok and the other seven and bestowing gifts upon them. He appointed Hiketa-no-Mushimaro, of Junior Sixth Rank Lower, as escort envoy, and sent a sealed letter, which said: "The Emperor respectfully inquires after the Prince of the Balhae Commandery. We have read your letter and fully understand that you have recovered your old territory and wish to restore your former amity. We rejoice in this. You should hold righteousness in esteem and cherish benevolence, and keep order and peace within your borders. Though we are separated by blue waves, let there be no ending of comings and goings. On this occasion, entrusting them to the returning chieftain Go Je-deok, we send you your letter's reply and gifts: ten bolts of colored silk, ten bolts of twill, twenty bolts of coarse silk, one hundred skeins of thread, and two hundred tun of floss silk. We also dispatch an escort envoy to see him home. The heat is growing by degrees; we trust you are well." (Note: following the Shoku Nihongi.) When Mu-ye died, his son Heum-mu succeeded him. This was the year corresponding to the ninth year of Tenpyō in the reign of Emperor Shōmu (737) (Note: following the Jiu Tang shu). In the eleventh year of Tenpyō (739), Heguri-no-Hironari, assistant officer of the mission to Tang, was caught in a storm at sea on his return from Tang and was swept as far as Kunlun; from there he returned again to Tang and took the route by way of Balhae. Heum-mu ordered Seo Yo-deok, Governor-General of Yakhol Prefecture and Zhongwu General, and I Jin-mong, Yunhui General, and others to escort Hironari. They met a storm at sea again; Seo Yo-deok's ship capsized and he drowned, while Hironari, together with I Jin-mong and the others, entered the capital. The state letter presented by I Jin-mong said: "Heum-mu humbly addresses you (Note: the original text writes his name with the second character 武 in place of 茂; this is an error). Mountains and rivers lie far between us and our lands are distant, yet we look toward the manners of your honored country and can only deepen our admiration. I humbly consider that the Heavenly Sovereign's palace extends supreme virtue far and wide, that generation after generation has added to its radiance, and that its favor flows to all the people. Heum-mu, unworthy as he is, has inherited the work of his forebears and has the honor of holding together the various peoples of the borderlands as in earlier days. Our friendship is warm and our feeling deep, and we constantly cultivate the amity of neighbors. On this occasion the envoy of your honored country, Asomi Hironari and his company, were driven by ill winds and tides and drifted to our shores. We received them with every kindness and meant to wait for the coming spring to send them back, but the envoys earnestly begged to return within the year. Their plea was weighty, and the claims of neighborly feeling are not to be lightly set aside. We therefore prepared their travelling provisions and sent them off at once. We have appointed Seo Yo-deok, Governor-General of Yakhol Prefecture, and others as envoys to accompany Hironari and his party to your honored country, and offer seven pelts each of great tiger and brown bear, six leopard pelts, thirty kin of ginseng, and three sho of honey. Please accept them upon arrival." In the following year (740), I Jin-mong was entertained in the Court Hall and ranks were conferred on each of them. To Heum-mu were granted thirty bolts of coarse silk, thirty bolts of silk, one hundred and fifty skeins of thread, and three hundred tun of tax floss silk. To I Jin-mong and his party were granted twenty bolts of coarse silk, ten bolts of silk, fifty skeins of thread, and two hundred tun of tax floss silk, and various other goods to each. To the chief envoy Seo Yo-deok was posthumously granted Junior Second Rank, and to I Gyeol-gi-mong Junior Fifth Rank Lower, and in condolence one hundred and fifteen tan of tax cloth and sixty tan of labor-levy cloth were also given. When the Emperor appeared at the Chūkōmon, I Jin-mong performed the music of his homeland. Ōtomo-no-Inukai, of Outer Junior Fifth Rank Lower, was made envoy to return the courtesy. In the eighteenth year of Tenpyō (746), more than eleven hundred people of the Cheolli of Balhae came to Japan, wishing to become naturalized subjects. They were settled in the province of Dewa, given clothing and provisions, and sent back (Note: following the Shoku Nihongi).

¶In the fourth year of Tenpyō-shōhō in the reign of Empress Kōken (752), Heum-mu sent the Boguo Grand General Mo Si-mong and others, seventy-five in all, as envoys to Japan. In the summer of the following year (753) they entered the capital. Mo Si-mong and his party had audience at court, presented gifts, and reported: "The King of Balhae humbly addresses you. It has now been more than ten years since the court of the Emperor who illumines all under heaven in Japan has sent us envoys. We have therefore dispatched Mo Si-mong and others, bearing the gifts of our state, to present them at your court." The court entertained Mo Si-mong and his party in the Court Hall and granted each of them rank and stipend. It replied in a sealed letter as follows: "The Emperor respectfully inquires after the King of Balhae. Though of slight virtue, We have respectfully received the treasured succession, nurture the myriad people, and illumine all under heaven. You, dwelling in a distant land beyond the sea, have sent envoys from afar to offer tribute. Your sincerity is plain and deserves high praise. However, on looking at the letter that was sent, we find in it no wording by which you style yourself a subject. We therefore examined the old records of Goguryeo: in the memorials of the Go clan it is stated, 'In affection we are like brothers; in right, we stand as lord and subject.' At times they asked for reinforcements, at times they congratulated a new reign, keeping to the regular practice of tribute and exhausting the sincerity of their loyalty. For that reason the former court approved of their fidelity and treated them with exceptional favor. You surely know well how day by day the warmth of that honored treatment did not cease, so there is no need to recount it item by item. For that reason, after your envoys returned home on the earlier occasion, an imperial letter was already sent to you. How is it, then, that on this occasion's tribute there is once more no memorial? To advance or withdraw according to ritual should be the same for you and for us. It is the end of summer and the heat is severe; we trust you have been well of late. As your envoys are now returning, we convey our former intentions to you, and bestow goods as listed on a separate sheet." In the second year of Tenpyō-hōji (758), Ono-no-Tamori and the others returned from completing their mission as envoys to Balhae. Balhae sent Yang Seung-gyeong, Boguo General, Prefect of Mokjeo Prefecture, Vice Director of the Bureau of Military Affairs, and Duke Founder of the State, and others, twenty-three in all, as envoys to Japan. In the following year (759) they entered the capital. When the Emperor appeared, Yang Seung-gyeong and his party presented their offerings and the state letter. The letter said: "Dae Heum-mu, King of Goryeo, humbly addresses you (Note: until now all references have said Balhae; that it here says Goryeo is probably because Heum-mu was for a time using the old name of his state). We have heard it said that in the land of Japan the sagely and enlightened Emperor who illumined all under heaven has passed away and ascended to the palace of heaven. We cannot restrain our longing for his renowned name, and cannot remain silent. We have therefore sent the Boguo General Yang Seung-gyeong and the Guide General Yang Tae-sa and others, bearing a memorial and our usual annual tribute, to pay tribute." The court conferred Senior Third Rank on the chief envoy Yang Seung-gyeong, Junior Third Rank on the deputy envoy Yang Tae-sa, and Junior Fifth Rank Lower on the assistant officer Bing Bang-rye, and conferred rank and goods on the others as well. The Taiho, Fujiwara-no-Emi-no-Oshikatsu, asked to entertain Yang Seung-gyeong and his party at the Tamura Residence. By imperial command, ten thousand tun of floss silk and a women's musical performance were bestowed to assist him. The imperial letter to the King of Goryeo said: "The Emperor respectfully inquires after the King of Goryeo. Your envoy Yang Seung-gyeong and his party have crossed the distant blue sea to condole with us on the mourning of the state. We are deeply moved by the sincere and courteous feeling that this shows. However, to alter the ritual according to the time is the usual way of the sages. Now that the mourning is over and we take up the new government, there is nothing else of special note. The goods you sent besides have been received according to the count. We send, to be carried by the returning envoys, in return thirty bolts of silk, thirty bolts of coarse silk, two hundred skeins of thread, and three hundred tun of floss silk, in exceptional praise of your loyalty. As a further special gift we add four bolts of brocade, two bolts of double-faced cloth, four bolts of patterned gauze, ten bolts of white gauze, thirty bolts of colored silk, and one hundred folds of white floss. The goods are light and trifling, but our feelings of regard are deep. Please accept them all. Your envoys have come, but they have no ship to return in. We shall therefore send a single envoy to take them back to your country. We also intend, while there, to cross from that place to Tang to meet Fujiwara-no-Kiyokawa, the chief envoy who went to Tang in earlier years. We ask that you give your help. The remaining cold has not yet left us; we trust you are well. In sending this letter we do not speak at length." Before this, the chief envoy to Tang, Fujiwara-no-Kiyokawa, had remained in Tang and had not returned. Accordingly Kō Gendo, of Outer Junior Fifth Rank Lower, was appointed envoy to the Tang to meet the chief envoy, and Kura-no-Matanari as deputy envoy, and they set out together with Yang Seung-gyeong. Heum-mu, fearing that harm might come to them because the An Lushan and Shi Siming Rebellion had not yet been put down in Tang, sent envoys to escort Gendo to Tang and meet Kiyokawa, and also dispatched Go Nam-sin, Boguo Grand General, Prefect of Hyeondo Prefecture, Officer of the Yaya, and Duke Founder of the State, to see Matanari home. In the following year (760), the Emperor appeared. Go Nam-sin offered his presents and reported: "Dae Heum-mu, King of the state, humbly addresses you. In order to deliver the chief envoy Fujiwara-no-Kiyokawa, sent to Tang by the court of Japan, we offer a memorial and our usual annual tribute, and have sent the Boguo Grand General Go Nam-sin and others as envoys to pay tribute." The Emperor rewarded their labors, conferring Senior Third Rank on the chief envoy Go Nam-sin, Senior Fourth Rank Lower on the deputy envoy Go Heung-bok, and Junior Fifth Rank Lower on the assistant officer I Neung-bon and others; and to the King he granted ten bolts of coarse silk, thirty bolts of Mino coarse silk, two hundred skeins of thread, and three hundred tun of tax floss silk. In the sixth year of Tenpyō-hōji (762), he sent Wang Sin-bok, Master of the Purple Sash, Left Assistant of the Administrative Hall, and Baron Founder of the State, and others as envoys to pay tribute. They were given gifts and sent home (Note: following the Shoku Nihongi). In this year Tang raised Heum-mu's title to King of Balhae (Note: following the Tang shu).

¶In the summer of the second year of Hōki in the reign of Emperor Kōnin (771), Il Man-bok, Master of the Blue Sash, and more than three hundred and twenty others reached the province of Dewa, and by imperial command were lodged in the province of Hitachi. In winter Il Man-bok and forty others were summoned to the capital and took their places at the New Year's Day court congratulations. In the first month of the following year (772), the Emperor appeared. Il Man-bok offered tribute goods, but the wording of the memorial was discourteous. Il Man-bok and his party were called to account, and the memorial and the tribute were handed back. Il Man-bok apologized, saying: "The way of a subject lies in not disobeying the command of his lord. We did not tamper with the seal of the letter, and respectfully presented it. Now that the memorial has been returned as contrary to precedent, Man-bok and his companions are most deeply alarmed and do not know how to report back. A lord is a lord, whichever he be, and carries equal weight. If we fail in our mission, we shall surely be punished on our return. Now that we have already cast ourselves upon the sagely court, we do not presume to shun any penalty, light or heavy. We beg to be allowed to amend the memorial and to apologize on behalf of our king." The Emperor issued an edict pardoning them. They were then received again with ceremony at their lodging, and a banquet was held in the Court Hall. Il Man-bok said, moved: "Because the state letter was contrary to precedent, the memorial and gifts were already thrown back. Yet the sagely court's generous favor is vast; it has taken pity on Man-bok and his companions, allowed us to share in the ceremonies due to guests, and moreover granted us ranks and stipends and the privilege of an audience in the palace. We subjects cannot contain our utmost joy." Il Man-bok was granted Junior Third Rank. The deputy envoy and those beneath him were each granted rank and goods. The imperial letter of admonition to Heum-mu said: "The Emperor respectfully inquires after the King of Goryeo. We have succeeded to the imperial line and rule over all under heaven. We think to spread virtue and favor far and wide, and to give peace and relief to the myriad people. For that reason, to the farthest corners of the land civilizing influence extends along one road, and wherever it may be under heaven, favor is not cut off on the ground that a land is foreign. In former times, the Go clan, kings of Goryeo, whose forebears for generation after generation dwelt beyond the sea, were as close as brothers and, in right, stood as lord and subject. They crossed seas and mountains to continue their tribute. But in their last days the Go clan perished, and from then on all tidings ceased. It was in the fourth year of Jinki (727) that your late father the king, Great General of the Left Jinwu Guard and Prince of the Balhae Commandery, sent envoys to our court and for the first time took up the duty of tribute. The former court praised his sincerity and treated him with exceptional generosity. You have inherited his example and continued the work of your predecessor. You offer your sincerity and discharge your duty, and do not let the good name of your house fall. But now, looking at the letter that has been sent, we find that its style has suddenly changed, that under the date no official rank or personal name has been written, and that at its close wording that presumes to claim descent from heaven has been written without restraint. Judging from afar the king's true intent, we think this cannot have been what he meant. Yet when we consider recent circumstances, we suspect that it may have been an error. We therefore ordered the officials to suspend for the time being the ceremonies due to guests. However, your envoy Man-bok and his companions deeply regretted their former fault and apologized on behalf of the king. We have taken pity on the toil of their long journey and accepted their change of heart. May the king fully understand this true intention and ponder good counsel for all time. In the old days of the Go clan, warfare never ceased, and they called themselves brothers in order to borrow the prestige of the court. But now there are no changed circumstances at all for the Dae clan, and to call oneself rashly in the relation of uncle and nephew (gusaeng) is a lack of propriety. Envoys in future must on no account let such a thing happen again. If you can amend the past and make yourselves new, we shall surely be able to continue our friendship for ages to come. The spring scene is at last growing mild; we trust the king is well. On this occasion we convey these thoughts by the returning envoys and send goods as listed on a separate sheet." Takefu-no-Torimori was made escort envoy, and they cast off their cables and put to sea. But they met a violent storm and drifted ashore in the province of Noto. By imperial command they were lodged at Fukura-no-tsu. In the spring of the fourth year of Hōki (773), the deputy envoy Mak Chang-nok, of Senior Fourth Rank Upper, died, and was posthumously granted Junior Third Rank. In summer the province of Noto reported: "Envoys of the state of Balhae, O Su-bul and others, have arrived. We sent men to question them about their circumstances, and O Su-bul replied: 'Balhae and Japan have cultivated friendship and exchanged visits, and have always been like brothers. In recent years the Japanese envoy Uchio and his companions stayed in Balhae and studied music. Ten years have now passed since they returned home, and we have had no word of their welfare since. We therefore sent the chief envoy Il Man-bok and his party as an envoy of inquiry. About four years have passed and they have not returned, so we have sent O Su-bul and his party to come to your court and receive the imperial decree in person; we have no other business. The memorial and gifts are all in the ship.'" The court sent a messenger to tell O Su-bul: "In the memorial presented by the earlier envoy Il Man-bok and his party, the language showed arrogance. We therefore instructed them by imperial command on the proper principles, and they have already been sent home. Now the governor of Noto reports that the memorial presented by O Su-bul is also contrary to precedent. We therefore do not allow you to enter the capital, and shall send you back to your own country. However, that the memorial is contrary to precedent is no fault of the envoy himself. Considering that you came over the sea from afar, you are to be pitied. We therefore grant provisions for the journey and send you home. Moreover, the coming of Balhae envoys by this route to Noto was already forbidden before. In future, follow the old precedent and come by way of Tsukushi." In the seventh year of Hōki (776), Balhae sent Sa Do-mong, Master of Xianke, Junior Director of the Office of Guests, and Baron Founder of the State, and one hundred and sixty-six others, one hundred and sixty-seven in all, to congratulate the Emperor on his accession and also to attend the mourning for the queen of that country. As the ships were about to reach port, they suddenly met a violent storm and drifted; many sank, and the assistant officer Go Suk-won and others drowned. Forty-six survived. By imperial command they were lodged in the province of Echizen and given provisions. In the first month of the following year (777), Sa Do-mong and his party were questioned: "In the fourth year of Hōki (773), when O Su-bul returned to your country, it was conveyed to him as a decision of the Council of State that 'envoys bringing tribute should go to the Dazaifu following ancient precedent, and must not take the northern route.' How is it, then, that you have taken the northern route again this time?" Sa Do-mong apologized: "O Su-bul did indeed receive this instruction. However, Do-mong and his party set out from Toho Harbor in Namhae Prefecture of our country, heading west for Takeya-no-tsu on Tsushima. But we met a violent storm at sea and drifted to this forbidden place. We have no way to escape blame." In the second month, Sa Do-mong and thirty others were summoned to enter court. Do-mong pleaded sorrowfully: "Do-mong and the other one hundred and sixty or more crossed the sea to come from afar to celebrate your accession. But those who drifted and perished number one hundred and twenty, and only Do-mong and some forty others were fortunate enough to be saved. Without the supreme virtue of the sagely court, how could we have survived? How much more, to be allowed by imperial command to enter court is our utmost good fortune. Yet these forty or more are, in right, as flesh and blood to us, comrades who have sworn to share hardship and joy. Now I hear that only sixteen of them are being kept at the shore, and it is as if my own body were being torn apart and sundered. I beg that by the Emperor's grace they may be allowed to enter court together." The Emperor permitted this. In the fourth month Sa Do-mong entered the capital, offered tribute, and reported: "The King of Balhae, having heard from afar that the sagely and enlightened Emperor has newly come to rule over all under heaven, cannot contain his joy, and has sent Sa Do-mong, Master of Xianke, Junior Director of the Office of Guests, and Baron Founder of the State, to offer congratulations and to present gifts from his country." The Emperor issued an edict granting Sa Do-mong Senior Third Rank, and granting the senior assistant officer Go Nok-sa and the junior assistant officer Go Ul-lim both Senior Fifth Rank Upper. To Go Cho-won he posthumously granted Senior Fifth Rank Upper and sent funerary goods. He replied in an edict: "The Emperor respectfully inquires after the King of Balhae. Your envoy Sa Do-mong and his party have crossed the distant blue sea to congratulate us on our accession. Looking back, We are ashamed to have, despite slight virtue, unworthily succeeded to the great imperial line, and feel as one who crosses a great river and knows not how to reach the other shore. You have followed precedent in performing the ceremonies of court visits and have rejoiced that a new reign has begun. Your earnest sincerity is truly worthy of praise. But Do-mong and his party suddenly met a violent storm and lost many men and ships. When we think of their state, far from home, our hearts are all the more pained. We shall therefore build ships and send envoys to bring them back to your country. We also send fifty bolts of silk, fifty bolts of coarse silk, two hundred skeins of thread, and three hundred tun of floss silk. In response to Do-mong's request, we add small gifts of one hundred ryō of gold in small measure, one hundred ryō of mercury in large measure, one can of gold lacquer, one can of lacquer, one can of camellia oil, four strings of crystal beads, and ten betel-palm fans. Please accept them all. It is the height of summer and the heat is severe; we hope you are at peace." Separately, goods were also sent to condole on the mourning of the queen of that country. Koma-no-Tonotsugu, Junior Assistant of the Bureau of Education, was made escort envoy. In the tenth year of Hōki (779), Balhae sent Jang Seon-su, Master of Xianke and Junior Director of the Office of Guests, to congratulate the New Year and to present tribute, and also to see Koma-no-Tonotsugu back. In autumn the Balhae commander Go Yang-pil and three hundred and fifty-nine people of Cheolli reached the province of Dewa. By imperial command the guest envoys from Balhae were inspected and their memorial was examined, and the wording was found to be discourteous. The Emperor commanded: "The Balhae memorial is discourteous, so there is no need to forward it further. As for the fact that their route of tribute does not pass through Tsukushi and that they still take the pretext of a convenient road, they should be questioned and admonished for the future." Afterwards Go Yang-pil earnestly begged to be given ships and allowed to return home, and this was permitted (Note: following the Shoku Nihongi).

¶In the fifth year of Enryaku in the reign of Emperor Kanmu (786), Balhae sent I Won-tae and others as envoys to bring tribute. In the sixth year of Enryaku (787), I Won-tae and his party reported: "Last year, on the way to bring tribute, we met with bandits, and the helmsmen and sailors were all attacked and killed. We have lost the means to return home." The court therefore ordered the province of Echigo to supply one ship and a number of sailors and sent them home (Note: following the Shoku Nihongi). When Heum-mu died, a kinsman, Won-ui, succeeded him, but he was suspicious and cruel. The people of the state killed him and set up Heum-mu's grandson Hwa-yeo. When Hwa-yeo died, Heum-mu's youngest son Sung-rin succeeded him (Note: following the Tang shu). In the fourteenth year of Enryaku (795), Balhae sent Yeo Jeong-rim, Master of Remonstrance and Director in the Bureau of Works, to Japan as envoy, to announce also the mourning of the state. Yeo Jeong-rim and his party drifted to the village of Shiriha, were plundered by the Emishi, and their followers were scattered. When the governor of Dewa reported the circumstances, an imperial command ordered: "Move them to the province of Echigo and supply them with provisions according to precedent." In the following year (796), Yeo Jeong-rim entered the capital and offered tribute, and at the same time announced the accession, saying: "I humbly consider that in the Emperor's daily life all is well and fortunate and that his meals are as usual. Sung-rin was barely sustaining his life when he suddenly fell into mourning for his father. The officials, moved by duty, restrained their grief, raised up and continued the great line, and respectfully took up the work of the former ruler, so that the court's institutions are as of old and the territory as it once was. Reflecting on it, I have truly received your favor. Yet the blue sea divides the earth and the waves fill the sky. We have no way to inquire after your health and can only deepen our admiration. I humbly send Yeo Jeong-rim, Master of Remonstrance and Director in the Bureau of Works, and others to cross the sea to inquire after you and to cultivate our former friendship. The few local products are as recorded on a separate sheet. This letter is disordered and does not express all that I mean." And the letter announcing the mourning said: "Heaven above sent down misfortune, and my grandfather, the Great Departed King (the former king), passed away on the fourth day of the third month in the fifty-seventh year of Daeheung (793). Under the amity of good neighbors, we should surely have inquired after each other's joys and sorrows, but because we are divided by the blue sea, our notice has been late. Sung-rin, through lack of virtue, brought misfortune upon himself and, not having perished himself, bears the guilt of unfilial conduct and suffers heavy punishment. I have respectfully written this letter and respectfully report. This letter is disordered and does not express all that I mean. Dae Sung-rin, orphaned grandson, bows his head to the ground." The envoys also delivered letters from Eichū and other monks who had gone to Tang. In the fifth month, when Yeo Jeong-rim and his party were to return, a sealed letter was bestowed on them, saying: "The Emperor respectfully inquires after the King of Balhae. We have succeeded to a martial destiny and bear the work of keeping the mandate of heaven. Where virtue and favor reach, they already extend along one road, and we wish that wherever civilizing influence spreads, even different regions may not be cut off. The king has newly inherited the foundation of his predecessors and has for the first time taken charge of the old territory. He has admired the virtuous government of the superior state and offered sincere courtesy to our court. When we consider his earnest sincerity, we are greatly pleased and consoled. However, the officials have stated: 'The letters sent on many occasions before Tenpyō-shōhō were quite well formed and their wording was worth reading. But on examining the letter presented this time by Yeo Jeong-rim, from beginning to end it lacks respect and departs from former ceremonial.' We consider that, as the way of cultivating oneself, courtesy should come first. If it is disregarded, there will be no need for comings and goings. But Yeo Jeong-rim and his party drifted to the land of the alien peoples of the frontier, were entirely plundered, and barely preserved their lives. When we think of their hardship, we cannot restrain pity. We therefore add a special reward and send them back with consolation. Further, having heard that the former king was unfortunately not granted a long life, We are pained at heart and cannot restrain this feeling. Now, on the return of Yeo Jeong-rim and his party, we especially send twenty bolts of silk, twenty bolts of coarse silk, one hundred skeins of thread, and two hundred tun of floss silk as a token of friendship to a distant land. Please accept them all. It is the hot summer season; we hope that the king, together with his chieftains and people, are at peace. We send this letter in abbreviated form; we cannot say all." Minaga-no-Hirotake, Assistant Governor of Kōzuke, and Kuwabara-no-Akinari, Senior Secretary of the Ministry of Ceremonial, and others were sent with them as escort envoys. In the tenth month, Minaga-no-Hirotake and his party returned and presented the letter of the King of Balhae, reporting: "Sung-rin humbly addresses you. You sent envoys who came from afar, and graciously showed us affection and courtesy. We waited eagerly to receive your gracious attentions. The Emperor suddenly extended his deep kindness and sent envoys. Good news filled our ears, and rare goods filled our eyes. Prostrate and gazing up, joy rose in me of itself, and prostrate I deepen my consolation and delight. Yeo Jeong-rim and his party unexpectedly fell into the hands of the alien peoples of the frontier and into the hands of bandits, but through your compassion they were rescued and were able to return alive to our country. This is entirely through the favor of heaven, and in life and death we rely on its protection. Sung-rin, unworthy as he is, has by good fortune been favored by the times; my office continues the title of my predecessor and my territory is governed as the old fief. The letter of appointment was delivered in winter, and the gold seal and purple sash shed their light far to the frontier. I wish to cultivate courtesy with your honored country with warmth, to form friendly ties, to pay court each year, and to see the sails of our ships continue without break. But great trees of fine timber grow with difficulty in this land. If we cross the sea in small ships, then unless they sink they will be put in danger. We admire the flourishing civilizing influence of your honored country, but we cannot overcome this difficulty. If you will inquire after our old friendship for ages to come and permit comings and goings, the number of envoys we send will not exceed twenty, and we would like this to be the limit, as a permanent rule. How many years should be the interval between missions we leave to the decision of your honored country. We hope that the envoy bearing your decision may come as early as next autumn. If you permit this period for comings and goings, virtuous neighborly relations will always be preserved. If only this matter is granted, our wishes will be fully satisfied. Now Hirotake and his party have largely finished their business. Out of their wish to return without missing the season, we would have sent men at once to serve as escort envoys and to express our thanks for the grace of the new appointment, but the envoys declined, on the ground that they had not yet learned the intention of your court, and so we have not ventured to detain them long but have followed their wishes. We respectfully entrust to the returning envoys local products to offer. The details are as on a separate sheet. We are aware that they are humble goods and are ashamed." The assembled ministers thereupon thought: "The earlier memorials from Balhae were of no fixed form and the language was in places quite insolent. But the letter presented this time, from beginning to end, lacks no courtesy, and the sincerity is well expressed in the words. We ought to express congratulations." They came to court and presented a memorial of congratulation. In the summer of the seventeenth year of Enryaku (798), Kura-no-Kamomaro, of Outer Junior Fifth Rank Lower, was made envoy to Balhae, and a sealed letter was also sent to the king, saying: "The Emperor respectfully inquires after the King of Balhae. In the previous year Hirotake and his party returned and We examined the letter in detail. Our heart was all the more consoled. That state of Balhae, though divided by the blue sea, has for generations performed the ceremonies of courtesy visits, with a long history behind it. In former times, when the Go clan held that line, they always came out of admiration for civilizing influence. After the Dae clan restored the foundations of the state, they too did not cease their voyages, divining the winds. In between, however, there was arrogance in the wording of their letters and departures from the old ceremonial. For that reason, we sometimes did not treat their envoys with the usual courtesy. The king follows the traces of his forebears' achievement, performs the ceremony of courtesy visits in the present age, and on that basis asks for a decision on visits every other year, to make it a lasting rule. We are deeply moved by this sign of his earnest sincerity. We have respectfully received the diagram of enlightened wisdom (the imperial throne) and inherited the sacred regalia. The voice of teaching has spread everywhere, with no partiality between south and north. Though regions differ, how could there be a division of hearts? We therefore permit comings and goings according to the request of your honored country. As to the number of envoys, we set no limit, great or small. However, when we consider that the great sea has no end and cannot be crossed in a tiny boat like a single reed, we think that startling winds and leaping waves will often bring disaster. If the period is made every year, the difficulty would be beyond reckoning. If it is made every six years, the balance between far and near will be about right. We therefore appoint and send as envoys Kura-no-Sukune Gamaro, of Junior Fifth Rank Lower, Assistant Governor of Kawachi, and others. They convey our thoughts and carry gifts. The items are as on a separate sheet. It is the height of summer and the heat is already severe; we hope the king is pure and well. Please convey our greetings also to your officials and people. We send this letter in abbreviated form; we cannot say all." In winter Sung-rin sent envoys who offered tribute and presented a memorial, saying: "Sung-rin humbly addresses you. Your envoy Gamaro arrived, and we received the letter and gifts you bestowed according to the count. Our consolation and joy are truly deep. The great sea fills the sky, the blue waves are as vast as if bathing in the sun, the road has no end, and we can only gaze toward the far side of the mists and clouds, yet the southeast wind sped our sails, they made for the old harbor, and even on the dry shore, as we kept watch, our provisions never ran short. Is it not wholly because the agreement between you and us coincided, secretly accorded with the way of men, and the feelings of friendship between north and south responded, and especially accorded with the heart of heaven? Sung-rin governs this old fief and carries on the work of his predecessors. From afar we have received your good guidance, and we cultivate it as always. The Emperor, from afar, sent down virtuous words and again sent envoys. His kindness is deeply engraved in my heart, and we received words of earnest consolation. How much more, that your attention extended even to the simple letter, that, taking account of the former request, you have not stopped sending gifts, and have even permitted comings and goings by fixed years. In the exchange of letters, the favor by which our faults were pardoned we consider quite exceptional compared with the past. Yet while we know well that voyages are difficult in a tiny boat like a single reed, to take six years as the limit makes us privately hesitate at its length. We beg that you will once more extend your good arrangements and also revise the period. If the period were shortened, it would also accord with our long-held wishes. If so, our feelings, bending like grass in the wind, will of themselves not weary, and in our duty of admiring civilizing influence we shall be able to follow in the tracks of the Go clan. As for the number of persons permitted in the letter, though no limit was set, great or small, we have somewhat taken the feelings of the envoys into account and kept the number modest. We respectfully send Dae Chang-tae, Weijun Grand General, Commander of the Left Xiongwei Guard, Upper Pillar General, and Viscount Founder of the State, and others as envoys. They carry gifts to offer. The details are as on a separate sheet. This land has no rare products, and we ourselves are ashamed at their poverty." In the summer of the eighteenth year of Enryaku (799), Shigeno-no-Funashiro, Junior Secretary of the Ministry of Ceremonial, and others were sent as envoys to return the courtesy, and a sealed letter was bestowed, saying: "The Emperor respectfully inquires after the King of Balhae. Chang-tae and his party arrived together with Gamaro, and we obtained and examined your letter in detail. The king admires civilizing influence from afar and has again asked for the interval between courtesy visits. Envoys who divine the clouds come shoulder to shoulder, and tribute-bearers speed across the waterways one after another. Whenever we think of this admirable intention, our praise knows no end. We therefore sent a special envoy to announce the interval of years. Yet you still find the period long and have again asked for revision. Now six years was fixed in the first place because of the difficulty of the sea route. If you are so little troubled by it, there is no need to argue over slowness and speed. Let the envoys of courtesy visits be free of any fixed term of years. Now, on the return of Chang-tae and his party, we appoint and send Shigeno-no-Sukune Funashiro, Junior Secretary of the Ministry of Ceremonial, of Senior Sixth Rank Upper, and others as envoys to escort them, and also attach gifts. The items are as on a separate sheet. It is early summer and the heat is severe; we hope the king is at peace. We send this in place of our full thoughts, in abbreviated form; we shall not say all." In the fifth month Kura-no-Kamomaro returned. In autumn Shigeno-no-Funashiro returned and presented the reply from Balhae: "Sung-rin humbly addresses you. Your envoy Funashiro and his party have arrived, and we graciously received words inquiring after our well-being, together with the gifts of coarse silk and silk, receiving them according to the count without excess or shortfall. We are ashamed at our gratitude, and respectfully acknowledge that you have repeatedly bestowed your warm kindness. When, with the letter of last year, we asked that the volume of comings and goings be revised, the letter you bestowed last year finally set six years as the limit. Sung-rin pondered with all his heart and asked that the period be shortened, and the Emperor, bending his own view to follow another's wish, graciously permitted it as requested. The gifts were all small and without rarities, yet you granted our request in a special way, and our joy is beyond measure. Lately an imperial decree descended from heaven and an official envoy came to our court. Good commands were specially added, and the honored favor was all splendid. Its benefit extended even to those who hold key offices in government. Reflecting on it, a man of slight virtue like myself has received exceptional protection. My envoy Chang-tae and his party, lacking talent, are unfit to be received and are not fully capable of carrying out their mission, but they have been given generous hospitality and their joy and consolation have only deepened. Now the autumn sun is about to set and the season is that of cool winds. The guests from afar long for home and daily wear on their hearts. Respecting the season and wishing that their return ship not be delayed, we have already received your permission to follow their wishes. It is just the time to send them off, but the term has not yet arrived, and we do not venture to send men with them. We respectfully entrust to the returning envoy a few modest goods to offer. The details are as on a separate sheet." (Note: following the Ruijū Kokushi.)

¶In the sixth month of the twenty-third year of Enryaku (804), an imperial command stated: "In recent years, envoys of the state of Balhae have mostly arrived in the province of Noto. The facilities for lodging them must not be neglected. Build a guest hall quickly" (Note: following the Nihon Kiryaku). In the winter of the fourth year of Daidō in the reign of Emperor Heizei (809), Balhae sent Go Nam-yong and others as envoys to bring tribute. In the summer of the first year of Kōnin in the reign of Emperor Saga (810), Go Nam-yong and his party were entertained at the Kōrokan and sent home with gifts. Their chieftain Go Da-bul remained in the province of Echizen and did not return. By edict he was settled in the province of Ecchū and given provisions. The clerk Haguri-no-Umaosa and the language student (apprentice interpreter) Shichi were made to learn the language of Balhae. In autumn Go Nam-yong was again sent as envoy to offer tribute. In the following year (811), they were given gifts and sent home. Hayashi-no-Azumahito, of Senior Sixth Rank Upper, was made escort envoy, and a sealed letter was bestowed, saying: "The Emperor respectfully inquires after the King of Balhae. Nam-yong entered court to offer congratulations, and we examined in detail the letter you sent. We think that the king is of broad and excellent disposition and of deep and great character. He is generous in kindness in uniting the realm within and exhausts respect in serving those without. Dwelling for generations at the farthest north, he has nevertheless cultivated friendship with our country. Across the blue sea where the sun sets (Note: the character 浴 is written 浚 in the original text; the two characters are similar in form and this is probably an error), your ships pressed on and at last arrived. You crossed waves that reached the sky, in a boat as small as a reed. Bearing treasures and exhausting your sincerity, you prepared the ceremony of congratulation. When We think of this earnestness, our praise knows no end. We have succeeded to a radiant destiny and unworthily received the diagram of enlightened wisdom (the imperial throne). We discipline ourselves to preside over all under heaven, and make our virtue greatly clear in governing the myriad people. Our virtue has not yet reached even our neighbors fully; how should its civilizing influence extend afar? The king holds the friendship of neighboring states in warm regard and keenly bears in mind the heart to serve a great state. He does not shrink from toil and cultivates the work of his predecessors. How much more, Go Nam-yong has come time after time, never letting the mission lapse. Though the ship was in utmost danger, his purpose only grew more spirited. Though we did not ourselves request it, how could we overlook this? We have therefore refitted a new ship and had the deputy envoy escort it. We send gifts with it; please accept them. Spring is still cold; we hope the king is at peace. Herewith we send this letter. We cannot say all." (Note: following the Nihon Kōki.) In the tenth month in winter, Hayashi-no-Azumahito returned from Balhae and reported: "The Balhae letter lacked courtesy, so we did not accept it." In the autumn of the fifth year of Kōnin (814), Balhae sent envoys to offer tribute. The chief envoy Wang Hyo-ryeom was granted Junior Third Rank, the deputy envoy Go Gyeong-su Senior Fourth Rank Lower, and the assistant officers Go Mak-seon and Wang Seung-gi Senior Fifth Rank Lower. The recorders and those below were also granted ranks, and they were given gifts and sent home. At sea they met a storm and turned back to the province of Echizen. Wang Hyo-ryeom died of illness, and by edict he was posthumously granted Senior Third Rank; further gifts and provisions for the ship were bestowed and they were sent home (Note: following the Nihon Kiryaku). When Sung-rin died, his son Won-yu succeeded him. When Won-yu died, Eon-ui next succeeded. When Eon-ui died, Myeong-chung next succeeded. When Myeong-chung died, In-su next succeeded (Note: following the Tang shu). In the tenth year of Kōnin (819), In-su sent I Seung-yeong, envoy for audience, and others on a courtesy visit; ranks were conferred according to precedent, and they were given gifts and sent home. In the twelfth year of Kōnin (821), Balhae sent Wang Mun-gu and others as envoys to offer tribute. In the fourteenth year of Kōnin (823), Jeong-tae and Jang-seon (Note: both lack surnames) and others, over one hundred in all, were sent and arrived in the province of Kaga. Because of heavy snow, the dispatch of an envoy of inquiry (an envoy sent to ask after their condition) was put off. In the first year of Tenchō in the reign of Emperor Junna (824), an imperial command halted their entry to the capital. Soon afterwards they presented two large hunting dogs of the Khitan. In the second year of Tenchō (825), Balhae sent Go Seung-jo as envoy to offer tribute. In the fifth year of Tenchō (828), an envoy was sent to the province of Tajima, and they were given gifts and sent home (Note: following the Nihon Kiryaku. The original does not record the envoy's name, but according to the later letter from Balhae it was probably Wang Mun-gu). When In-su died, his grandson I-jin succeeded him (Note: following the Tang shu and the Wenxian tongkao).

¶In the eighth year of Jōwa in the reign of Emperor Ninmyō (841), a report came from the governor of Nagato reporting that envoys from Balhae had arrived. Ono-no-Takemoto, Senior Secretary of the Ministry of Ceremonial, and Toyoshina-no-Yasuhito, Junior Secretary of the Bureau of Records, were made envoys of inquiry (envoys sent to ask after their condition) and in charge of the Balhae guest envoys, and were ordered to copy out and report the Balhae state letter and a draft of the official communication (cheop) from its Jungdaeseong (the Balhae government office). In the summer of the following year (842), the chief envoy Ha Bok-jeong (Note: also written Yeon-bok) and his party entered the capital and presented gifts and the state letter at the Hasshōin. The letter said: "Dae I-jin, King of Balhae, humbly addresses you. Late autumn has gradually grown cold, and I humbly think that the Emperor is in good health, and rejoice. I, I-jin, also receive your favor. Earlier, Wang Mun-gu and others first reached the borders of your honored country for the ceremony of entering court, but Mun-gu and his party turned back from there without crossing the border. When I asked about the circumstances on the day of their return, I was told that entry to court had not been permitted and that the Emperor's wishes had been conveyed orally. According to this, entry to court would be permitted once a period of twelve years had been completed. I-jin gauged the Emperor's true intention and understood that frequent comings and goings were not desired; I respectfully followed those spoken words and kept to the earlier agreement. But now the stars have turned in their courses and the period of twelve years has already passed. I ought to perform the ceremony of entering court, but I fear letting the term pass. I have therefore sent envoys to present a letter and wish to have them enter court as agreed. I-jin is separated by the vast sea and cannot meet you in person. Unable to bear this feeling, I respectfully send Ha Bok-yeon, Left Assistant of the Jeongdangseong, to present this letter." A separate sheet said: "During the lifetime of I-jin's grandfather the king, when Go Seung-jo was sent as envoy to enter court, the Emperor wrote down one hundred ryō of gold to be given to the monk Ryōsen of Mount Wutai, who was staying in Tang, and entrusted it to Go Seung-jo. On the day he received it and returned home, he reported in detail that the Emperor had entrusted the gold. My grandfather the king respectfully received this consideration, and entrusted it instead to the envoys going to pay tribute to Tang and to congratulate the New Year, intending that they should inquire where Ryōsen was and have the gold sent to him, and, when the envoys returned, ascertain whether the gold had been delivered. But the road was long across the sea, and even after the term had passed the envoys did not return. Afterwards, when the envoys who had gone to pay tribute to Tang came back, it became known that the envoys of the previous year had, on their return, reached Tori Bay (Toriho) when a violent wind suddenly arose and all of them sank in the sea. Before that, when they had gone to Mount Wutai to look for Ryōsen and send him the gold, Ryōsen had already passed away (entered transformation) and it could not be delivered. That gold likewise sank in the sea. After this, when Wang Mun-gu entered court, he wished to state in his letter the details of this matter and convey them to the Emperor, but Mun-gu could not complete the ceremony of entering court and turned back with the letter in hand. Now, I again state how this gold was lost and send Ha Bok-yeon to convey our sincerity. I beg your understanding." The communication from the Jungdaeseong said: "The Jungdaeseong of the state of Balhae sends a communication to the Council of State. Concerning the envoys who are to enter court in your honored country, Ha Bok-yeon, Left Assistant of the Jeongdangseong, and one hundred and five attendants. Having received the communication, we have made arrangements. The land of the rising sun lies far to the east, and the land of Liaoyang is divided from it to the west. Between the two states are more than ten thousand li. The sea fills the sky and the movements of winds and clouds are hard to gauge, but as the sun rises out of the earth, so the road too is easy to mark. For that reason, in showing our old feelings of friendship and paying our respects, it is necessary at each voyage to divine the winds and wait a long time for the right moment before entering court. Though the interval of years is fixed, the comings and goings of envoys continue even now. To send envoys with letters in hand has thus continued to this day. We should follow the old rules and respectfully perform the ceremony of entering court. We respectfully send Ha Bok-yeon, Left Assistant of the Jeongdangseong, to enter court in your honored country. In accordance with this document, we submit a communication to the Council of State of the state of Japan.' We have respectfully copied it out and submit the communication." The Emperor appeared at the Buraku-den and issued an edict granting Senior Third Rank to the chief envoy Ha Bok-yeon, Senior Fourth Rank Lower to the deputy envoy Wang Bo-jang, Senior Fifth Rank Lower to both the assistant officers Go Mun-hyeon and O Hyo-sin, and Junior Fifth Rank Lower to all the recorders Go Mun-in, Go Pyeong-sin, and An Hwan-hui. Offices and ranks were also conferred on the others, and gifts were bestowed. The reply said: "The Emperor respectfully inquires after the King of Balhae. Bok-yeon and his party arrived, and we examined in detail the letter you sent. We think that the king has kept clear agreements well and has acted in accordance with the old rules. After the twelve years of the stars' courses, you did not miss the time for entering court. Though divided by ten thousand li of sea, your sincerity in offering tribute has remained constant and communicated. When we consider this earnestness, we do not forget it waking or sleeping. In the previous year, the envoys who went on a courtesy visit to Tang returned, and from what we learned in detail, the monk Ryōsen had already left this world. Now, on looking at the separate sheet, the circumstances agree. We also learned that the gold we had entrusted had sunk entirely in the green bay. Though the man has left the world and the gift was lost and the original plan could not be fulfilled, we think of the toil of your acting as intermediary and feel from afar your sincerity. We are separated as if at the far side of heaven, and it is quite beyond our hopes to reach you. We have no means of meeting, and our pain at heart does not end. We attach a few small gifts. The items are as on a separate sheet. It is early summer and the weather is growing sultry; we trust you have been well and at peace lately. We send this in abbreviated form as our reply and do not say all." The communication sent by the Council of State to the Jungdaeseong of the state of Balhae said: "The envoy entering court, Ha Bok-yeon, Left Assistant of the Jeongdangseong, has come and performed the ceremony of the courtesy visit, keeping the sincere agreement of twelve years and crossing a thousand li of rough waves. Riding the wind, the envoys directed their hearts here, and gazing at the light of the sun they advanced. As the matter has fixed rules, we reported it in accordance with precedent and asked for a decision. The reply by imperial command said: 'To inquire after the friendship of neighboring states did not begin today; in its quiet words there is pure sincerity, which we praise in our hearts. We should add special compassion and have them carry out their mission. Now, on the envoys' return, we attach a sealed letter and gifts; please accept them all. However, as to the form of the letter, it did not follow the old custom. We shall not press the fault in public ceremonial, but it should be corrected hereafter. We send a communication on the basis of the edict; upon its arrival, respond accordingly.' We therefore send this communication." (Note: following the Shoku Nihon Kōki.)