Biographies · Vol. 234

Biographies CLXI: Foreign Peoples, Part III: Goguryeo and Goryeo

Machine-assisted draft translation, checked for readability. For the classical Chinese text and the modern Japanese translation, see this volume in Japanese.

Goguryeo

¶Goguryeo (Kōkōri), also called Goryeo (Kōrai) (Note: following the Yasutomi-ki and the Book of Sui), is the ancient land of Joseon (Korea). At the beginning of Joseon there was as yet no ruler. A divine being descended from heaven and was born there, and the people of the country raised him up as their lord and called him Dangun, and named the country Joseon. King Wu of Zhou enfeoffed Gija in Joseon, and his line continued for forty-one generations; but in the time of Gi Jun he was driven out by Wi Man (Wiman), a man of Yan, and fled to the land of Han. Wi Man took the whole of the Joseon territory into his hands. When his grandson Wi Ugeo was on the throne, Emperor Wu of Han destroyed him and made the land into commanderies. After the house of Wi had fallen, the Go family rose in Buyeo (Fuyu) and gradually came to possess the land of Joseon. The ancestors of the Go family came from King Geumwa of Buyeo. Geumwa found a certain woman and shut her up in a room; the light of the sun fell upon her, and she bore an egg. From that egg a boy broke out of the shell and was born, and he was named Jumong. In the language of that country, Jumong means a skilled archer. Jumong set his capital beside the Biryu River in Jolbon Buyeo, named the country Goguryeo, and took the surname Go. Within the realm five divisions were established: Inner, Eastern, Western, Southern, and Northern. Among the offices were the Daedaero, Daesa, Sosa, Daesang, Eulsang, Widu, Daehyeong, and Jubu (Note: compiled with reference to the Samguk sagi, the Dongguk tonggam, and the Book of Sui). This year corresponds to the sixty-first year of Emperor Sujin (37 BCE). Jumong soon attacked and took the two states of Biryu and Haengin, destroyed Eastern Okjeo, and drove back the Malgal. He died in the nineteenth year of his reign and was given the title King Dongmyeongseong. He had three sons, the eldest named Biryu and the second Onjo; Onjo was the founder of Baekje. Earlier, while Jumong was in Northern Buyeo, he had had a son named Yuri, and he made him his heir. When Yuri died he was given the title King Yuri-myeong (Ruri-myeong). His son Muhyul came to the throne. In this period the lands of Yangmaek, Gaema, Gucha, Nakrang, and others were attacked and taken, and the territory of Goguryeo gradually expanded. When Muhyul died he was given the title King Daemusin. His younger brother Haeupju came to the throne, and when he died he was given the title King Minjung. His son Haeu came to the throne but was tyrannical, so the people of the country killed him and set up Gung, a grandson of Yuri. Gung reigned for more than ninety years and passed the country to his younger brother Suseong, and was styled King Taejo the Great. Suseong too, once on the throne, was without principle, and his subject Myeongnim Dap-bu killed him; he was given the title King Chadae. Gung's younger brother Baekgo came to the throne, and when he died he was given the title King Sindae. His son Nammu came to the throne, and when he died he was given the title King Gogukcheon. His younger brother Jeongu came to the throne (Note: following the Samguk sagi and the Dongguk tonggam). This year corresponds to the sixth year of Emperor Chūai (197). In the ninth year of Emperor Chūai (200), Empress Jingū conducted her expedition to the west. Goryeo and Baekje both begged to submit, and on this account the Uchi-no-Miyake, the Inner Imperial Domains, were established (Note: following the Nihon Shoki). When Jeongu died he was given the title King Sansang. His son Uwigeo came to the throne, built a fortress at Pyongyang, and moved his capital there. When he died he was given the title King Dongcheon. His son Yeonbul came to the throne, and when he died he was given the title King Jungcheon. His son Yakro came to the throne (Note: following the Samguk sagi and the Dongguk tonggam).

¶In the seventh year of Emperor Ōjin (276), Goryeo sent tribute. The Minister Takenouchi-no-Sukune put its laborers to work digging a pond, and it was therefore named the Karahito-no-Ike, the Pond of the Korean People (Note: following the Nihon Shoki). When Yakro died he was given the title King Seocheon. His son Sangbu came to the throne (Note: following the Samguk sagi and the Dongguk tonggam). In the autumn of the thirty-seventh year of Emperor Ōjin (306), Goryeo sent an envoy with tribute, but the memorial he bore contained discourteous language. The Crown Prince was angered, tore the memorial to pieces, rebuked the envoy, and sent him back (Note: following the Nihon Shoki). Sangbu was arrogant and suspicious, and was deposed by his chief minister Chang Joli, whereupon he hanged himself; he was given the title King Bongsang. Eulbul, a grandson of Yakro, came to the throne (Note: following the Samguk sagi and the Dongguk tonggam). In the thirty-seventh year of Emperor Ōjin (306), when Achi-no-Omi and Tsuka-no-Omi were sent as envoys to Wu, they went by way of Goryeo. Goryeo dispatched two men, Kureha and Kureshi, to escort them as far as Wu. In the twelfth year of Emperor Nintoku (324), Goryeo sent envoys who presented an iron shield and an iron target. The court feasted the envoys and chose the best archers from among the assembled ministers to shoot at it. When Tatehito-no-Sukune pierced the iron target, the Goryeo envoys marvelled at the skill and the force of the shot (Note: following the Nihon Shoki). When Eulbul died he was given the title King Micheon. His son Soe came to the throne (Note: following the Samguk sagi and the Dongguk tonggam). In the fifty-eighth year of Emperor Nintoku (370), Goryeo sent an envoy with tribute (Note: following the Nihon Shoki). In the fifty-ninth year of Emperor Nintoku (371), Baekje attacked the fortress of Pyongyang, and Soe was struck by a stray arrow and died; he was given the title King Gogugwon. His son Gubu came to the throne, and when he died he was given the title King Sosurim. His younger brother by the same mother, Iryeon, came to the throne, and when he died he was given the title King Gogugyang. His son Damdeok came to the throne, and when he died he was given the title King Gwanggaeto. His son Sinryeon came to the throne (Note: following the Samguk sagi and the Dongguk tonggam). In the eighth year of Emperor Yūryaku (464), Goryeo established friendly relations with Silla and sent one hundred soldiers to help guard Silla against Baekje. But Silla mistakenly killed these auxiliaries, and Goryeo, enraged, attacked Silla. Silla appealed for help to the Japanese Office at Mimana, and Kashiwade-no-Ikaruga and others went to its relief and utterly defeated the Goryeo army. In the twentieth year of Emperor Yūryaku (476), Goryeo attacked Baekje. After seven days and seven nights of assault, it finally took the city. The king of Baekje together with his queen and princes were captured alive and all put to death (Note: the passage from "seven days and seven nights" onward follows the Kudara-ki cited in the notes of the Nihon Shoki). The Goryeo troops would have gone on to exterminate the surviving people and swallow Baekje entirely, but Sinryeon refused, saying, "Baekje is a Miyake, an official domain, of Japan. That its king serves the court of Japan is known to all the neighboring states," and the matter ended there. In the twenty-third year of Emperor Yūryaku (479), the emperor installed Matta as king of Baekje and sent him to his own country under the escort of troops. Separately he commanded Achi-no-Omi and Umakai-no-Omi of Tsukushi to lead a naval force and attack Goryeo. In the third year of Emperor Seinei (482), Goryeo sent envoys with tribute. In the fourth year of Emperor Ninken (491), Sinryeon died and was given the title King Jangsu. His grandson Naun came to the throne (Note: the passage from "Sinryeon died" onward follows the Samguk sagi and the Dongguk tonggam). In the sixth year of Emperor Ninken (493), Hitaka-no-Kishi was sent to Goryeo. Goryeo presented the craftsmen Suruki and Nuruki and others. In the tenth year of Emperor Keitai (516), Goryeo sent Anjeong and others with tribute (Note: following the Nihon Shoki). In the thirteenth year of Emperor Keitai (519), Naun died and was given the title King Munjamyeong. His son Heungan came to the throne (Note: following the Samguk sagi and the Dongguk tonggam). In the twenty-fifth year of Emperor Keitai (531), Goryeo killed Heungan (Note: following the Kudara Honki, cited in a variant account in the Nihon Shoki; but when the Samguk sagi and the Dongguk tonggam are examined, they do not record that he was murdered). His younger brother Boyeon came to the throne (Note: following the Samguk sagi and the Dongguk tonggam).

¶In the first year of Emperor Kinmei (540), Goryeo sent an envoy with tribute (Note: following the Nihon Shoki). In the sixth year of Emperor Kinmei (545), Boyeon died and was given the title King Anwon, and his son Pyeongseong came to the throne (Note: following the Samguk sagi and the Dongguk tonggam). Originally the king of Goryeo had three consorts. The principal consort had no children; the middle consort belonged to the kin of her father-in-law's line, the Chogun, and the lesser consort was a daughter of the Segun, and each of these two had a son. When Boyeon's illness grew grave, the Segun and the Chogun each strove to place the son of their own consort on the throne, and fought a great battle at the palace gate. The Segun side was defeated, and more than two thousand died. In the twelfth year of Emperor Kinmei (551), Baekje attacked Goryeo and seized six districts including Pyongyang. Goryeo took the opportunity to ally itself with Silla. In the fourteenth year of Emperor Kinmei (553), Prince Yeochang of Baekje attacked Goryeo, struck the Goryeo king on Mount Dongseong, and put him to flight (Note: following the Nihon Shoki). In the twentieth year of Emperor Kinmei (559), Pyeongseong died and was given the title King Yangwon. His son Yanghyang came to the throne (Note: the Samguk sagi and the Dongguk tonggam give the name as Yangseong, but here a variant account in the Nihon Shoki is followed). In the twenty-third year of Emperor Kinmei (562), the Great General Ōtomo-no-Satehiko attacked Goryeo and defeated it. The Goryeo king Yanghyang climbed over a wall and fled to Hizurutsu. Satehiko sent his troops into the royal palace, obtained the seven-woven curtain, the iron house, and various treasures, and returned. In the twenty-sixth year of Emperor Kinmei (565), Zumuriyahe and others of Goryeo came and became naturalized subjects. In the thirty-first year of Emperor Kinmei (570), Enu-no-Moshiro, a man of Koshi, came to the capital and reported: "A ship bearing Goryeo envoys drifted ashore in our land, but Michi-no-Kimi, the district governor, concealed it and did not report it. I therefore make this report." The emperor issued an edict saying: "The Goryeo envoys lost their way and reached the sea of Koshi. Though they were afflicted by wind and waves, their lives were nonetheless spared. Let the officials build a guest residence in Sagara district, Yamashiro province, and receive them generously." He sent Kashiwade-no-Katabuko to Koshi to entertain the Goryeo envoys. When the envoys had first arrived, Michi-no-Kimi had styled himself lord of the province and seized their tribute goods. When Katabuko arrived, Michi-no-Kimi came out to meet him and prostrated himself, and the Goryeo envoys told the whole story in detail. Katabuko recovered everything that had been taken and returned it. In the thirty-second year of Emperor Kinmei (571), the emperor fell ill and soon died. For that reason the Goryeo memorial and tribute had not yet been presented. When Emperor Bidatsu took the throne, the Goryeo envoys presented their memorial and tribute. The emperor pitied them and grieved deeply for the dead emperor. The memorial had been written on the feathers of a crow; Ōjinni steamed the feathers over cooked rice, pressed silk cloth against them to take an impression, and so deciphered all the characters. The chief envoy of Goryeo said to his deputy: "You would not listen to me; you divided the tribute goods from our country on your own authority and gave them at once to those who asked for them. This is your fault. When the king hears of it he will surely have you put to death." The deputy envoy was afraid and sought to silence the chief envoy by killing him. The chief envoy learned of the plot, made himself ready, quietly went out into the courtyard of the guest residence, and wandered about helplessly. Suddenly a man appeared, struck the chief envoy on the head with a staff, and left. Then another stepped forward and split open his head and hand. Blood ran over his face, yet the envoy did not fall, but stood and wiped away the blood. Then yet another stepped forward and stabbed him in the belly, and at last he was killed. The next morning Yamato-no-Aya-no-Sakanoue-no-Komaro, who was in charge of receiving the guests, questioned the deputy about the circumstances. The deputy replied: "The emperor had granted the chief envoy a wife, but he defied the imperial command and would not accept her. It was a gross discourtesy. For that reason we conspired together and killed him." The emperor ordered the officials to bury the body with due ceremony. In the second year of Emperor Bidatsu (573), Goryeo envoys reached the sea of Koshi, but many of them were drowned in a storm. The court, suspecting that they had repeatedly lost their way, gave them ships and provisions and sent them back. Kibi-no-Amabe-no-Naniwa was made the escort envoy. Naniwa, fearing the wind and waves, did not wish to go; he seized two Goryeo men and threw them into the sea, and on his return reported: "The sea was full of whales, and the ship could not pass." The emperor saw through the falsehood and reduced him to the status of an official slave. In the autumn of the following year (574), Goryeo envoys arrived and reported: "Last year we set out together with the escort envoy's ship, along with the boatman Gohi of Ōshima. We have already returned to our own country, but the escort envoy's ship has still not arrived this year. We therefore returned aboard Iwahi's ship. We have been sent again to ask why the escort envoy has not come." The emperor summoned Naniwa and questioned him sharply, but Naniwa could not answer. The emperor enumerated his offenses and finally had him punished (Note: following the Nihon Shoki). In the third year of Emperor Sushun (590), Yanghyang died and was given the title King Pyeongwon. His son Won came to the throne (Note: following the Samguk sagi and the Dongguk tonggam).

¶In the ninth year of Empress Suiko (601), Silla attacked Mimana. Ōtomo-no-Kui was sent to Goryeo to have it send troops to help Mimana. In the third year of Empress Suiko (595), the Crown Prince and the Minister were commanded to make a Buddha image sixteen feet tall. The king of Goryeo, Daeheung, heard of this (Note: according to the Samguk sagi and the Dongguk tonggam, the name of the Goryeo king at this time was Won, with the title King Yeongyang, but here the Nihon Shoki is followed and the name is not rashly altered), and presented three hundred ryō of gold. In the eighteenth year of Empress Suiko (610), he sent the monks Damjing (Note: Jing is also written with another character) and Beopjeong to the court. In the twenty-sixth year of Empress Suiko (618), he sent envoys with tribute, who reported: "The ruler of Sui raised a great army of three hundred thousand and attacked us, but we repulsed them." They presented two Sui prisoners, Zhengong and Putong, ten kinds of goods including drums and horns, crossbows, and stone-throwers, and a camel as a local product (Note: following the Nihon Shoki). In this year Won died and was given the title King Yeongyang. His younger brother Geonmu came to the throne (Note: following the Samguk sagi and the Dongguk tonggam). In the thirty-third year of Empress Suiko (625), he sent the monk Hyegwan to the court. In the second year of Emperor Jomei (630), he sent Yeon Jabal, Yakdeok, and others with tribute (Note: following the Nihon Shoki). In the first year of Empress Kōgyoku (642), he sent envoys with tribute. The envoys said: "In the sixth month of last year the king's younger brother, the prince, died. In the ninth month of autumn the minister Irikasumi killed the king, and together with him killed more than one hundred and eighty persons including Irikoseshi. He then set Jang, the son of the king's younger brother, on the throne as king, and made a kinsman of his, Tsusuru-konru, minister" (Note: following the Nihon Shoki. However, according to the Samguk sagi and the Dongguk tonggam, Gaesomun of Goryeo killed his lord Geonmu and set up the king's nephew Jang. Gaesomun was also called Gaegeum and was a great man of the Eastern Division; by a stratagem he killed more than one hundred great men of the various divisions and himself became Makriji, which agrees with the account in this book. But both works place this event in the tenth month of this year. According to this book, this embassy came in the second month of this year, so "last year" is doubtful. In the entry for the second year of this book, it is said that "the Dazaifu reported that Goryeo envoys had arrived, and the ministers conferred and said, 'Goryeo has not sent tribute since the year Tsuchinoto-I (Kigai), yet this year they have come to court.'" According to this passage, the arrival of these envoys was probably in the second year. To describe it as "this year" seems to be an error, but here the original text is provisionally kept and is not rashly altered. The year Kigai corresponds to the eleventh year of Emperor Jomei. But this book does not record any Goryeo tribute then, and probably there is an omission in the text). In the fourth year of Empress Kōgyoku (645), monks who had studied in Goryeo told this story: "Our fellow student Kuratsukuri-no-Tokushi, while in Goryeo, befriended a tiger and acquired a marvelous art. At one time he turned a barren mountain into a green mountain, and at another he turned yellow earth into white water. The tiger also taught him the art of acupuncture and gave him needles, and with their treatment he never failed to cure. Tokushi always kept the needles hidden inside a pillar, but later the tiger broke the pillar and took the needles away. Goryeo, learning that Tokushi intended to return to his own country, poisoned him." In the first year of Taika of Emperor Kōtoku (645), Goryeo sent envoys with tribute. From this time, tribute continued almost every year (Note: following the Nihon Shoki and a variant account in this book). In the fifth year of Hakuchi of Emperor Kōtoku (654), when the emperor died, envoys were sent to offer condolences (Note: following the Nihon Shoki).

¶In the first year of Empress Saimei (655), Goryeo sent envoys with tribute. In the second year of Empress Saimei (656), it sent the chief envoy Dalsa, the deputy envoy Iriji, and others with tribute. Kashiwade-no-Kusuritsumi, Sakaibe-no-Iwasuki, and others were sent as envoys in return. In the fifth year of Empress Saimei (659), it again sent tribute. On this occasion a Goryeo envoy took a single brown-bear pelt to sell in the market, declaring its price to be equal to sixty kin of floss silk. The painter Komaro, who was originally from Goryeo, heard of this, borrowed seventy official bear pelts, spread them out as mats, and invited his compatriot envoys to his house for a banquet. The man who had meant to sell the pelt was greatly ashamed and left. In the following year (660), Eulsang Hachwimun and more than one hundred others were sent with tribute. In the autumn of the seventh year of Empress Saimei (661), the Tang general Su Dingfang, together with Qibi Heli of the Tujue, pressed upon the walls of Goryeo from two directions, by water and by land. In winter Goryeo sent an envoy to report as follows: "This winter the cold has been severe and the river waters have frozen. The Tang army pressed upon our city with siege engines such as cloud-ladders and assault shelters, but the defenders fought hard and drove them back. We have further captured two Tang camps and now only two forts remain to them, and we have already put a plan for a night attack into effect. The Tang army's keenness is spent and its strength is exhausted, and the soldiers embrace their knees and weep." At this time Empress Saimei died, and the Crown Prince, still in mourning dress, directed the military administration overseas. He therefore sent troops to relieve Goryeo, and the army anchored on the shore at Kahari in Baekje. When the soldiers lit a fire, the ground beneath the ashes suddenly gave way into a hole and collapsed, with a sound like a humming arrow. All the people said, "This is an omen that Goryeo and Baekje will perish." In the year Mizunoe-Inu (662), the Tang and the Silla people attacked Goryeo. Goryeo asked for reinforcements, and Japan sent commanders to garrison the fortress of Soru. Because of this the Tang could not invade its southern frontier, and Silla could not cross its western forts. In the year Mizunoto-I (663), the Tang army destroyed Baekje, and King Pung of Baekje fled to Goryeo. In the year Kinoe-Ne (664), the Goryeo minister Gaegeum died. On his deathbed he gave this charge to his sons: "You brothers must live in harmony like water and fish, and must not quarrel over rank. If you do not follow my words, you will surely become a laughingstock to neighboring countries" (Note: according to the Samguk sagi and the Dongguk tonggam, Gaegeum's death was in the year Hinoe-Tora. The Nihon Shoki places it in this year, and here it is provisionally followed). In the year Hinoe-Tora (666), Neungnu of the Front Division and Eomchu of the rank of Eulsang were sent with tribute. In the year Hinoto-U (667), Empress Saimei was buried in the Ochi-no-Oka-no-Ue Mausoleum. The Goryeo envoys expressed their condolences along the way. In this year Namsaeng, the son of Gaegeum, who held the rank of Daehyeong, went out on a tour of inspection of the various divisions. His two younger brothers Namgeon and Namsan, urged on by others, occupied Gungnae Fortress and refused to admit their elder brother. Namsaeng defected to Tang and plotted the destruction of Goryeo (Note: the names Namgeon, Namsan, and Gungnae Fortress follow the Samguk sagi and the Dongguk tonggam. According to those two works, Namsaeng's surrender to Tang was in the year Hinoe-Tora, but this book places it in this year, and here it is provisionally followed). In the first year of Emperor Tenji (662), envoys were sent with tribute. In this year the Tang general Li Ji, using Namsaeng as his guide, attacked Goryeo and destroyed it (Note: the name Namsaeng follows the Samguk sagi and the Dongguk tonggam). It is said that when King Jungmo of Goryeo (Note: Jungmo is Jumong) founded the state, it was foretold that he would rule for a thousand years. His mother said: "If you rule well you may reach a thousand years; if you fall short of a thousand, it will be seven hundred years at most." Now the fall of Goryeo fell precisely at the end of seven hundred years. In the fourth year of Emperor Tenji (665), the Goryeo envoy, the Daesang of the Upper Division, Garu, came with tribute (Note: according to the Dongguk tonggam, Goryeo had already been destroyed by this time, and Silla had privately enfeoffed Go Anseung as king of Goryeo. The statement here that Goryeo sent tribute probably refers to this. Because Silla had separately sent men to escort his envoys, the Silla escort envoys were probably not recorded). In the first year of Emperor Kōbun (Prince Ōtomo) (672), Bugabyeon of the Front Division and others were sent with tribute. In the first year of Emperor Tenmu (672), Widu Daehyeong Hanja of the Upper Division and Do Daehyeong Seokgan of the Front Division were sent with tribute. In the third year of Emperor Tenmu (674), the Daehyeong Bugan and the Daehyeong Damu came with tribute. In the fourth year of Emperor Tenmu (675), the Jubu Agan of the Rear Division (Note: Bu, "register," is probably an error for another character of the same sound) and Do Daehyeong Deokbu of the Front Division came with tribute. In the seventh year of Emperor Tenmu (678), the Daesang Hwangeom of the Upper Division (Note: this book writes Bugan as Bu-u, Agan as Ha-u, and Hwangeom as Hwanbu, but here they are corrected according to the Shaku Nihongi) and the Daesang Saseuru of the Lower Division came with tribute. In the eighth year of Emperor Tenmu (679), the Daesa Myogan of the Southern Division and the Daehyeong Jundeok of the Western Division came with tribute. In the tenth year of Emperor Tenmu (681), Joyugyeru Mojeol and Daego Angga of the Lower Division were sent with tribute. After this, tribute ceased (Note: following the Nihon Shoki. According to the Dongguk tonggam, in the first year of Hongdao of Tang (683), Silla demoted Go Anseung to the rank of Sopan and made him change his surname to Kim, and Goryeo thereby came to an end. This corresponds to the eleventh year of Emperor Tenmu (682). Further, the Wenxian tongkao records in detail the alternative names of each of the five divisions, saying that the Front Division is the Southern Division and the Rear Division is the Northern Division. For the "Sang" and the "Lower Division" seen here no authority can be found, but probably these too are alternative names within the divisions).

Goryeo

¶Goryeo (Kōrai). The Goryeo king Wang Geon's family origins are not known in detail. His father was named Ryung, a man of Songak commandery in Hanju in Silla. Seeing that the country was in great disorder, Ryung secretly nursed the ambition of swallowing up the Three Han. Ryung begot Geon, who was intelligent from childhood and had an extraordinary physiognomy. When he was seventeen, a monk who saw him remarked that he was a remarkable man. At that time Gungye and Gyeon Hwon each held the provinces and districts of Silla in separate possession and each styled himself king. Geon therefore threw in his lot with Gungye. Gungye made Geon governor of Cheorwon. Ryung soon submitted to him as well and became governor of Geumseong. Gungye called his state Taebong, but he was suspicious by nature and fond of killing. His officers and men therefore did not submit in their hearts, and in the end they drove Gungye out, raised Geon up as king, and fixed the name of the state as Goryeo. He then destroyed Silla and took all its former territory into his hands (Note: following the Dongguk tonggam). In the seventh year of Jōhei in the reign of Emperor Suzaku (937), he sent an envoy bearing a letter (Note: following the Nihon Kiryaku) and also asked to send tribute. In the deliberations of the court, his request was not granted, and a reply letter was sent (Note: following the entry for the fourth year of Jōryaku in the Tsunenobu-ki). In the second year of Tenkyō (939), he sent an envoy and made his request again (Note: following the Tsunenobu-ki; the year follows the Nihon Kiryaku). This too was in the end refused, and the Dazaifu was ordered to send a letter to the Gwangpyeong Council of Goryeo (Note: following the Nihon Kiryaku). However, the trade of merchants was not prohibited, as before (Note: following the Chōya Gunsai and the entry for the second year of Tenen in the Nihon Kiryaku). When Geon died, Mu came to the throne. When Mu died, Yo came to the throne. When Yo died, So came to the throne (Note: following the Dongguk tonggam). In the third year of Tenroku in the reign of Emperor Enyū (972), an envoy of the Namnyang Office of Goryeo reached the island of Tsushima carrying a letter (Note: following the Nihon Kiryaku). The Dazaifu was ordered to reply (Note: following the Hyakurenshō). When So died, Seon came to the throne. When Seon died, Chi came to the throne (Note: following the Dongguk tonggam). In the third year of Chōtoku in the reign of Emperor Ichijō (997), Goryeo sent an envoy, but its letter departed from the customary form. The court suspected that there was some scheme behind it, gave no reply, and ordered the coastal districts to guard against it (Note: following the Hyakurenshō. This book contains the statement that "in this winter Goryeo raiders invaded the western frontier, and in the following year the Dazaifu was ordered to attack Goryeo," but because the Nihon Kiryaku calls these raiders Nanban raiders, it is not recorded here). When Chi died, Song came to the throne (Note: following the Dongguk tonggam). In the fourth year of Chōhō (1002), the people of Goryeo, suffering under oppressive government and unable to bear its orders, wandered in great numbers and fled to the land of Kyushu (Note: following the Hyakurenshō). In the first year of Kankō (1004), people of Ulleungdo, a dependency of Goryeo, drifted to Inaba (Note: following the Gonki; "Goryeo barbarians" follows the Honchō Reisō and "Ulleung" follows the Dongguk tonggam. This book writes "Ulleung" with a different first character, but it is corrected here. The Kintō-shū says that "people of Silla's island of Uruma arrived," but the island of Uruma is none other than Ulleungdo). They were given provisions and sent back to their own country (Note: following the Honchō Reisō). When Song died, Sun came to the throne (Note: following the Dongguk tonggam).

¶In the third year of Kannin in the reign of Emperor Go-Ichijō (1019), Jurchen raiders invaded the western frontier. Fujiwara-no-Takaie, Dazai-no-gon-no-sotsu, Provisional Governor-General of the Dazaifu, sent out troops and drove them back, but among the captives taken there were many Goryeo people. Interpreters were therefore used to ask about their circumstances, and all said: "The raiders first invaded our own country, so we went out to defend against them, and were instead captured by the raiders" (Note: following the Chōya Gunsai and the Shōyūki). Soon afterwards a Goryeo merchant, Mal Geunda, drifted to Shima district in Chikuzen and said: "I had earlier gone to Song to trade, and was about to return home when I drifted to your country." The officials of the Dazaifu had never believed the words of the captives, and when Geunda came they were equally suspicious. They therefore confined the captives and Geunda together. When the raiders had first struck, many of the coastal inhabitants had been seized and carried off. Nagamine-no-Morochika, a hōgandai, deputy magistrate, of Tsushima island, was captured together with his whole household, but soon Morochika alone escaped and returned. Then he went off again, and after some twenty days returned leading his aunt and ten women, and told the island governor as follows: "When I returned home the other day, I secretly worried that my aged mother and kinsfolk had been left behind alone. Rather than live in peace by myself and fall short of what a man owes, I resolved to put myself into the raiders' land if need be to learn whether my mother lived or died. I secretly broke the prohibition, crossed the sea, and went to Goryeo. Just as I was about to reach the land of the Toi, I happened to meet a Goryeo interpreter, Inrye. Inrye said: 'The raiders first invaded our own country, so our officials sent out troops and struck them. The raiders fled and headed for Japan, so we ordered the districts and counties to prepare more than a thousand warships and to stand guard against the raiders in turns. When the raiders came in again, we attacked and defeated them, and the number killed and captured was beyond counting. But among the raiders' ships there were many Japanese, and when we took them all in they numbered more than three hundred. We now intend to send them back to your country. The matter has already been decided, so you should return quickly and tell them of this.' I then went to the prefecture of Gimhae, met people of our country, and asked whether my mother was alive or dead. They told me: 'Your family, except for your aunt, all sank into the sea and died.' I therefore wished to return with my aunt, but having already broken the prohibition and crossed the sea, I could not simply go home without some proof. So I asked leave to take with me ten women of our country, and this was granted; the women I am now leading are these." The island governor then questioned the women whom Morochika had brought. Among the women were two who could explain the circumstances well, one Kura-no-Iwame, a woman of Chikuzen, and the other Tajihi-no-Akomi, a woman of Tsushima, and they answered: "While the raiders and the government troops faced each other, people struck by arrows died one after another without cease. Then they moved on to Goryeo, and every night they landed and plundered people and goods. By day they hid among the islands, kept the strongest of the captives on the ships, and threw all the rest into the sea. When some twenty days or more had passed, several hundred Goryeo ships appeared and attacked the raiders. Their onslaught was extremely fierce, and the raiders too exerted all their strength to resist. The Goryeo warships were built differently from ordinary ones and were very tall and large. Over the roof there were several tiers of towers, and on top of the towers oars were set up, four on each side, with five or six rowers to each oar. The soldiers who boarded numbered more than twenty. Oars also hung down from the lower part of the ship, seven or eight on each side. Their equipment included iron armor and iron tatsu, and each soldier wore them. At the prow of each ship horns had been made of iron, with which they broke through the raiders' ships. They also carried large stones, with which they smashed the raiders' ships. The raiders' ships capsized one after another and very many died. The raiders at last could not hold out; they threw all the men and women they had seized and were carrying into the sea, and drove their ships away in flight. Soon the Goryeo ships picked up those who were drifting in the water, and more than thirty revived by this means; we were among them. When the fighting was over they escorted us to the prefecture of Gimhae. On the road, horses were given to us at each post station and food was provided at each station, always served in silver vessels, and we were treated with great generosity. The officials said: 'Our country respects and honors Japan, so we treat you generously.' When we reached the prefecture, clothes were made for us of white cloth, and we were also given delicious food. We had stayed at the prefecture some thirty days when Nagamine-no-Morochika arrived and took us ten back with him. On the day of sailing, the officials of the country ordered that provisions be issued to us and also said: 'Before long we intend to send a special envoy and return all the Japanese. You should go back first and report these circumstances.' So we followed Morochika and came back." The island governor sent Morochika and Iwame and the others together to the Dazaifu. The Dazaifu recorded the circumstances in detail and sought a decision from the court, but no decision was reached (Note: following the Shōyūki). The Goryeo envoy Jeong Jaryang arrived at Tsushima and returned two hundred and seventy men and women (Note: following the Shōyūki and the Sakeiki; the Sakeiki in some places says Silla, but this is an error). By decision of the court deliberations Jaryang was summoned to the Dazaifu and made to give a full account of the matter. As a result Morochika and the Goryeo people who had earlier been detained were all released. When Jaryang first came, he carried a letter that the Andong Protectorate of Goryeo had sent to Tsushima, and said: "Our country regards this Andong Protectorate as the general governing office that pacifies the east, and all the other offices have had their names changed to provinces and are placed under this office. For that reason the letter was sent from this office." The court's deliberations concluded: "That Goryeo struck the raiders and returned people of our country is truly a matter of great importance for an entire nation, and so by rights a letter ought to have been sent specially by an official office of that country. Since a mere local prefecture has sent a letter to Tsushima, we too should have the Dazaifu send a letter in reply," and it was decided accordingly (Note: following the Shōyūki). In the following year (1020), Jeong Jaryang was sent back to his own country. In particular, Jaryang was granted three hundred ryō of gold, and was also given provisions, and all the Goryeo people who had been detained were sent home (Note: compiled with reference to the Nihon Kiryaku and the Sakeiki; the three hundred ryō of gold follows the Ōkagami). When Sun died, Heum came to the throne. When Heum died, Hyeong came to the throne. When Hyeong died, Hwi came to the throne (Note: following the Dongguk tonggam).

¶In the sixth year of Eishō in the reign of Emperor Go-Reizei (1051), Goryeo sent a letter and returned a woman from Hyūga who had been in Goryeo (Note: following the Hyakurenshō). A letter was sent in reply (Note: following the Tsunenobu-ki. According to the Hachiman Gudōkun, during the Tenki era Goryeo sent back the mother of Jōgyō, a monk of Iki island, and she was probably someone who had earlier been seized by the Toi and taken to Goryeo. Since the circumstances are similar, it is added here for reference). In the fourth year of Jōryaku in the reign of Emperor Shirakawa (1080), a merchant who had traded with Goryeo, on returning home, brought with him a letter from the Board of Guest Ceremonies (Yebinseong) of Goryeo to the Dazaifu, together with offerings. The letter read: "This Board has respectfully received a sacred decree, and has heard that in your honored country there are fine physicians able to cure wind-sickness. Now, taking advantage of the merchant Wang Chikjeong's return to his homeland, we exchange this letter, and we shall also have Wang Chikjeong explain the origins of the wind-sickness. We ask that you select a superior physician and send him early next spring to treat it. If results are seen, we shall surely make a reward that is not slight. For the present we entrust to Wang Chikjeong splendid brocade, ten lengths each of large and medium twill, and ten navels of musk. We would be grateful if you would hand them to the officials of the Dazaifu and accept them first as a token of good faith." Such, in outline, was the content of the letter. "The sacred decree received by this Board is as set out in detail above. If your office indeed has a good physician able to cure wind-sickness, we beg that he be sent here. Please also accept the bolts of cloth and the musk. Respectfully submitted." (Note: following the Zoku honchō monzui, the Chōya Gunsai, and the Tsunenobu-ki). The Dazaifu submitted a memorial to the court and placed the matter before deliberation. Judging the wording of the letter discourteous, the court had the Dazaifu send a letter and ordered the gifts to be sent back. The reply read: "It is already more than a thousand years since we first formed bonds of friendship with your honored country, and the duty of amity has continued through the reigns of successive sovereigns. Now we hear that, lying in your chamber afflicted by mist and dew, you seek medical help from across the distant sea; reflecting upon the report, we are truly sorry for you. However, the wording of your letter somewhat departs from established precedent. To change 'disposition' into 'sacred decree' is not language that the king of a tributary state may use. For one dwelling in a remote land to set himself level with a superior country is truly contrary to the way of proper order. Moreover, you have entrusted a merchant's traveling ship with a brief letter in foreign style, no formal envoy has arrived, and even the courtesy due a sealed letter is lacking. Even a letter entrusted to a fish seldom reaches the moon over the palace; how much less could a famous physician go beyond the clouds of Gyerim (Note: Gyerim is another name for Silla and Goryeo). We therefore return all the gifts. This is conveyed by letter." (Note: following the Zoku honchō monzui, the Chōya Gunsai, and the Suisaki). When Hwi died, Un came to the throne. When Un died, Uk came to the throne and passed the country to Ong. When Ong died, U came to the throne. When U died, Hae came to the throne. When Hae died, Hyeon came to the throne (Note: following the Dongguk tonggam). In the first year of Eiryaku in the reign of Emperor Nijō (1160), the Gimhae prefecture of Baekje (Goryeo) detained people of Tsushima island (Note: following the Hyakurenshō), and soon again detained Tsushima merchants (Note: following the Hyakurenshō and the Sankaiki). When Hyeon died, Ho came to the throne. In the first year of Bunji in the reign of Emperor Go-Toba (1185), Fujiwara-no-Chikamitsu, Governor of Tsushima, was pursued by Taira-no-Munemori and fled to Goryeo. The king of Goryeo gave him a fief for his maintenance and treated him generously. Soon Minamoto-no-Yoritomo sent an envoy to fetch Chikamitsu, whereupon the Goryeo king had three ships prepared and sent him back together with rare goods (Note: following the Azuma Kagami). When Ho was deposed, Tak came to the throne. When Tak died, Yeong came to the throne. When Yeong was deposed, O (Note: in fact the character is one written with the "clothing" radical) came to the throne. When O died, Cheol (Note: the "step" radical of this character should be changed to the "sun" radical) came to the throne (Note: following the Dongguk tonggam). In the second year of Jōō in the reign of Emperor Go-Horikawa (1223), people of Goryeo drifted ashore at Teradomari-no-ura in Echigo (Note: following the Azuma Kagami; the Hyakurenshō gives Shiraishi-no-ura). Only four survived, and the ship was more than ten jō long (Note: following the Hyakurenshō). Among the articles they carried were two bows (with leather for bowstrings, much like the bows of the Ezo), one quiver, two long swords (each braided with cords, with a silver plate about seven sun long and two sun wide at the center, engraved with four characters, but the script was strange and could not be read), and other items such as eating utensils (Note: following the Azuma Kagami). In the following year they entered the capital and lived beside the Rokkaku-dō, and many of the vessels they possessed were of silver. So many people gathered to see them that the court ordered the Rokuhara to drive them away (Note: following the Hyakurenshō). In the second year of Karoku (1226), the Matsura band of Hizen enticed people of Tsushima island and, in several dozen warships, invaded Jeolla province of Goryeo and plundered people and goods (Note: following the Meigetsuki and the Hyakurenshō). The people of Goryeo came out and fought, and nearly half of the Matsura troops were killed; the rest plundered silver vessels and other goods and returned (Note: following the Meigetsuki). In the following year (1227), a Goryeo envoy arrived at the Dazaifu (Note: following the Hyakurenshō, the Kōteiki-shō, and the Dongguk tonggam) and denounced the previous year's raid. Mutō-no-Sukeyori, the Shōni, reported the circumstances in detail to Kamakura, but at the same time seized and beheaded ninety of the people who had committed the outrages, and on his own authority sent a letter in reply. On this the court's deliberation held: "The Goryeo letter is discourteous, but for Sukeyori to seize and behead the island's people without consulting the court's deliberation, and privately to send a reply, is a grave injury to the dignity of the state." It ordered the officials to judge his offense (Note: following the Hyakurenshō; that the matter was reported to Kamakura is supplied to fill an omission in the Azuma Kagami). In the third year of Kanki (1231), the shrine people of Kagami-sha in Chikuzen went to Goryeo, attacked houses by night, and plundered their goods. Hōjō-no-Yasutoki ordered the shugo to arrest the culprits (Note: following the Azuma Kagami). In the first year of Ninji in the reign of Emperor Shijō (1240), a Goryeo envoy bearing a letter arrived at Tsushima (Note: following the Hyakurenshō and the Heikoki). When Cheol died, Jeong came to the throne (Note: following the Dongguk tonggam; the character "Cheol" should have the "sun" radical).

¶In the fifth year of Bun'ei in the reign of Emperor Kameyama (1268), Jeong sent his subject Ban Bu with a letter and local products as tribute, and had him deliver as well a state letter from the Mongols (Note: following the Ichidai Yōki, the Teiō Hennenki, the Godai Teiō Monogatari, and the Kantō Heitei-den). The letter said in outline: "Our country serves the Mongol state as a subject. Its sovereign is of generous virtue and wise, and wishes to open friendly relations with your honored country. I received an edict whose purport was exceedingly strict and pressing, and I have had no choice but to send a certain official to bear the Emperor's letter. Would it not be well for your country too to send a single envoy and see for yourselves how matters stand? We ask that you give it consideration." (Note: following the Godai Teiō Monogatari and the Kantō Heitei-den. The Goryeo letters in these two works are both extremely brief, so the text here has been compiled with reference to the Dongguk tonggam). No reply was made, and the Dazaifu sent the envoy back (Note: following the Godai Teiō Monogatari). In the spring of the sixth year of Bun'ei (1269), a Goryeo envoy came to Tsushima in the train of a Mongol envoy, but was not received (Note: following the Teiō Hennenki and the Godai Teiō Monogatari). In autumn, Gim Yuseong, Go Yu, and others were again sent bearing the Goryeo state letter and the Mongol state letter and reached the Dazaifu, but again no reply was made. Go Yu had a strange dream and was moved by it, and he dedicated his fur cap to the Anraku-ji and departed (Note: following the Kantō Heitei-den). In the eighth year of Bun'ei (1271), Goryeo sent a letter reporting that the Mongols would soon attack (Note: following the Kikki). Commanders and warriors of the western frontier were ordered to prepare in advance (Note: following the Shimazu documents). In the ninth year of Bun'ei (1272), Zhang Duo of the Mongols came bearing a Goryeo letter, but again no reply was made (Note: following the Kantō Heitei-den). In the eleventh year of Bun'ei (1274), Goryeo, with eight thousand troops, aided the Mongols and attacked Iki, Tsushima, the Dazaifu, and other places (Note: following the Teiō Hennenki, the Kantō Heitei-den, and the Nichiren Chūgasan; the number of Goryeo troops follows the Dongguk tonggam). In this year Jeong died and Geo came to the throne (Note: following the Dongguk tonggam). In the first year of Kenji in the reign of Emperor Go-Uda (1275), Geo sent the interpreter and colonel Seo Chan and others together with the Mongol envoy Du Shizhong and others, but they were seized and beheaded at Kamakura (Note: following the Teiō Hennenki and the Kantō Heitei-den; the name Seo Chan follows the Dongguk tonggam). The coastal provinces were therefore ordered to build warships, and troops were to be raised from the various provinces to punish Goryeo (Note: following the Shimazu documents and the Nogami documents). Before the army had set out, in the fourth year of Kōan (1281), Goryeo aided the Mongol army with nine hundred ships, ten thousand troops, fifteen thousand sailors, and one hundred and ten thousand koku of provisions, and had Gim Bang-gyeong and others lead them against Chinzei. They met a violent storm just then, men and ships were overturned and drowned, and more than seven thousand of the force were lost (Note: compiled with reference to the Hachiman Gudōkun and the Nichiren Chūgasan; the personal names and the number of troops follow the Dongguk tonggam). In the fourth year of Shōan in the reign of Emperor Fushimi (1302), Gim Yuseong of Goryeo again came bearing a state letter (Note: following the Dongguk tonggam), in which there were words hinting at the use of arms (Note: following the Kugyō Chokushi Sangū Shidai). Hōjō-no-Sadatoki detained him. It had begun when Jo I of Goryeo persuaded the Mongols, saying, "Communication can be opened with our country," and Xindu, Hong Dagu, and others were drawn on by this. The ships, provisions, and weapons to be used were all ordered to be prepared by Goryeo. Goryeo was a small country and could not bear these harsh exactions, and both public and private suffered. In the first year of Enkyō in the reign of Emperor Hanazono (1308), Geo died and Jang came to the throne, and passed the country to Do. Do passed it to Jeong, and Jeong passed it to Heun. When Heun died, Ji (Note: the character "Ji" was originally written with the "sun" radical) came to the throne (Note: following the Dongguk tonggam). In the first years of the Shōhei era in the reign of Emperor Go-Murakami (from 1346), vagabond bands of the western frontier, in several thousand ships, invaded the lands of Goryeo and of the Yuan and made a habit of repeatedly plundering people and goods. It was then a time of war, and the court's control did not reach to distant places, so they could not be prohibited. Within a few years the districts and towns along that coast fell into ruin, and the inhabitants were almost all gone (Note: following the Taiheiki). In the sixth year of Shōhei (1351), Ji passed the country to Jeon (Note: following the Dongguk tonggam). In the twenty-second year of Shōhei (1367), Jeon sent his subjects Gim Il, Jungcheong daebu and former Director of Ceremonies (Jeonuiryeong); Gim Ryong, Cheonho and Colonel of the Left and Right Guards for Protecting Victory (Jwau-wi Boseung Junglangjang); and Eo Jungjang, Inspecting Colonel of the Left and Right Guards for Protection (Geomgyo Jwau-wi Bo Junglangjang), and others, bearing a state letter and a letter from the Central Secretariat of the Yuan, to Hyōgo-no-tsu in Settsu, asking that the depredations of the frontier people be prohibited (Note: following the Zenrin Kokuhōki and the Taiheiki; compiled also with reference to the Kyūrei Zōjiki). Ashikaga-no-Yoshimitsu lodged them at the Tenryū-ji and had the monk Myōha entertain them (Note: compiled with reference to the Zenrin Kokuhōki, the Taiheiki, and the Fumyō Kokushi Gyōjō). On their return gifts were exchanged, but no letter was sent in reply, the excuse being that the home country was then in disorder and control was not effective (Note: following the Taiheiki. The Zenrin Kokuhōki says a reply letter was sent, but this probably means that Yoshimitsu did not answer himself and had Myōha send the reply). When Jeon died, Sin U came to the throne. U was of a different surname; he was one whom Jeon had earlier raised as his own son, and at this time he became king (Note: following the Dongguk tonggam).

¶In the first year of Tenju in the reign of Emperor Go-Kameyama (1375), Goryeo sent its subject Na Heung-yu on a visit (Note: following the Tōji documents), seeking the suppression of piracy and the opening of relations (Note: following the Dongguk tonggam). Ashikaga-no-Yoshimitsu summoned him to the capital (Note: following the Tōji documents) and detained him without sending him back. There was a monk of Goryeo who had thrown himself on Japan's protection, and Heung-yu asked for his release. Yoshimitsu agreed and let him go back to his own country. In the fourth year of Tenju (1378), Goryeo again sent Jeong Mong-ju as envoy. Imagawa-no-Sadayo, the Kyushu Tandai, released several hundred of the captured people and sent them back. In the fifth year of Tenju (1379), it again sent Yi Jayong as envoy. Imagawa-no-Sadayo ordered that two hundred and thirty of its people be returned. In the fifth year of Genchū (1388), Sin U was deposed. His son Chang came to the throne. In the following year, the ministers of Goryeo banished Chang to Ganghwa and set up Yo, a member of the royal house of the Wang clan (Note: the source has "Ju" here, evidently an error for "Wang"), as king. Yo reigned four years and then withdrew to Wonju. His subject Yi Seong-gye took his place as king (Note: following the Dongguk tonggam; for Seong-gye, the Ming shi is followed). In the third year of Meitoku in the reign of Emperor Go-Komatsu (1392), Goryeo sent a monk as envoy and once more asked for the suppression of piracy and the opening of relations. Ashikaga-no-Yoshimitsu ordered the monk Chūshin to send a reply, which ran in outline as follows: "That the people of the seacoast have disturbed good order and have not honored the laws is truly a matter of shame to our sovereign and ministers. We intend to order the guardians of Chinzei to suppress the pirate ships and to send back the captives. As to opening communication and forming bonds of friendship, this too is what we desire. However, the generals and ministers of our country have from ancient times had no custom of exchanging documents directly with lands overseas, and so we cannot answer your honored letter directly. Having a monk reply in our place is in no way a lapse in courtesy." (Note: following the Zenrin Kokuhōki). In the fourth year of Ōei (1397), Goryeo changed its national name to Joseon (Note: following the Wakan Gōun). In the fifth year of Ōei (1398), Goryeo specially sent an envoy on a visit and repeated its earlier request. Ashikaga-no-Yoshimitsu, for the first time, granted the request at this point (Note: following the Zenrin Kokuhōki). Thereafter envoys continued to come and go without interruption, but these were no longer tribute from the house of Go; all of it amounted merely to private exchanges across the border by local commanders.