Biographies CXL: Men of Letters, Part I

Wani

¶Arms are what begin an enterprise; letters are what preserve it once it is accomplished. They are like yin and yang, or cold and heat: neither can be dispensed with. In our imperial court, the virtue of arms spread first, and only afterwards did the teaching of letters flourish. From the time Emperor Ōjin accepted tribute from Kudara (Paekche), down to Emperor Tenji's study of the Way of the Duke of Zhou and Confucius, instruction and cultivation were greatly carried out, and all things fell into harmony. Schools were established in the provinces and districts, and the court library was stocked with the classics, histories, the writings of the philosophers, and collected literary works. At the Daigaku-ryō, the University, the Sekiten, the rite honoring Confucius, was performed, and in the court examinations the taisaku, essay answers to policy questions, were set. The systems of encouragement of study and the founding of academies were all meant to nurture able men and equip them with virtue. The examinations resembling the Chinese civil-service examinations were divided into four subjects, and in selecting men the two branches of civil and military were both given weight. What those above practiced, those below imitated, and the two ways of letters and arms were brought into order. Ever since, the sage and enlightened Sons of Heaven of each age have honored learning and have not neglected to read late into the night. In the Kōnin and Tenchō eras the custom of lecturing on learning and composing poetry flourished, and in the Engi and Tenryaku eras scholars and men of letters stood shoulder to shoulder. This flourishing age surpassed even the ancients; excellent men appeared one after another, and the culture rose in splendor. Yet as the stream reached its end, it brought with it a defect: men labored only at memorization and the artifice of poetry and prose, and could no longer return to the root of probing the principles of things and exhausting their own nature. Thus those who made their names known in the world through literary art were very numerous, but there were scarcely any who spread the Way through Confucian learning. Moreover, the form of their prose was bound by parallelism and tonal rules and could not approach an elegant, antique flavor. This was because they inherited the ornate and artful fashion of the end of the Sui and the beginning of the Tang. Had an outstanding man arisen to lead them, it would not have been difficult to surpass the prose of Jin and Wei and to stand beside that of Han and Zhou. The Book of Changes says: "Observe the patterns of heaven, and one discerns the changes of the seasons; observe the patterns of humanity, and one transforms and perfects the world." The meaning of the sage's use of the way of Bi, adornment and refinement, reaches its limit here. Men such as Kibi-no-Makibi and Abe-no-Nakamaro displayed their gifts in poetry and prose, and their names were known even in foreign lands. Kiyohara-no-Natsuno and Sugawara-no-Michizane devoted themselves to learning and piled up achievements, and their names shine in the records of later ages. As for other famous figures and ministers who distinguished themselves in government and in great undertakings, separate biographies have been written for each of them. Here we take up only those who were praised solely for literary art, and compile them in order as the "Biographies of Men of Letters."

Fune-no-Tatsuni

¶Wani (Note: the Kojiki writes this "Wani Kishi." Considering it now, the sounds of "Wani" in the two writings are the same) was a man of Kudara, and his ancestor was named Ku. The ancestor of Ku, further back, was named Ran, and is said to have come from the bloodline of Emperor Gaozu of Han. Ku first came to Kudara and settled there (Note: following the Shoku Nihongi, the annals of Emperor Kanmu). Wani was widely versed in the classics. In the fifteenth year of Emperor Ōjin (284), an envoy from Kudara, Achiki (Note: the Kojiki writes "Achi Kishi"), presented fine horses. The emperor at once commanded Achiki to take charge of keeping them. Achiki was well versed in the classics and commentaries, and the Crown Prince took him as his teacher. The emperor once asked Achiki, "Is there any scholar in your country who is wiser than you?" Achiki answered, "There is a man named Wani, the finest talent in the land." The emperor at once sent Arata-wake and Kannagi-wake to summon Wani, and Wani accordingly followed them and came to Japan (Note: following the Nihon Shoki). Wani presented ten fascicles of the Analects and one fascicle of the Thousand-Character Classic (Note: following the Kojiki. Considering the matter, the Thousand-Character Classic as now transmitted was composed by Zhou Xingsi of the Liang dynasty of the Southern Courts, and at that time it had not yet come into being. Because there is doubt on this point, the Nihon Shoki does not adopt this entry). The Crown Prince then studied under him (Note: following the Nihon Shoki). Wani was also skilled in the Japanese language. When Emperor Nintoku ascended the throne, he composed a waka to celebrate it, which sang of a flower blooming at Naniwa-zu, a flower that had endured the winter in seclusion and now, with spring at hand, bloomed again. It is commonly said that this poem, together with the Asakayama song composed by a court lady of Mutsu, is called the father and mother of waka (Note: following the preface to the Kokin Wakashū; that the poem was offered at Emperor Nintoku's accession follows the Ōgishō). In the reign of Emperor Richū, when the Uchi-no-kura, the Inner Storehouse, was built to hold the treasures of the government, Wani and Achi Kishi together kept the record of what went in and out (Note: following the Kogo Shūi). Among the descendants of Wani were the Arako-no-Obito, the Fumi-no-Obito, the Fumi-no-Imiki, the Takefu-no-Sukune, the Koshi-no-Muraji, the Kurusu-no-Obito, and the Sakurano-no-Obito, all of whom were Wani's posterity (Note: following the Shinsen Shōjiroku; for the Fumi-no-Obito the Nihon Shoki is followed, and for the Fumi-no-Imiki the Shoku Nihongi).

Shirai-no-Ichitsu

¶Fune-no-Tatsuni was originally of the Wang family, and his ancestors were men of Kudara. Emperor Ōjin once commanded Arata-wake to seek a learned man in Kudara. The king of Kudara, King Kisu, sent his own grandson, Prince Shinson (Note: Prince Shinson was also called Prince Shishū), in response, and had him accompany the envoy to Japan. The emperor was pleased, made him teacher to the Crown Prince, and had him greatly spread the temper of Confucian learning. The sons of Prince Shinson, Prince Taarō and Prince Ya, served Emperor Nintoku as close attendants. Prince Taarō fathered Genyō-kun, and Genyō-kun fathered Gojō-kun. Gojō-kun had three sons: the eldest was Misa, the second Tatsuni, and the third Maro (Note: following the Shoku Nihongi, the annals of Emperor Kanmu. As for Prince Shinson, it says that in Emperor Ōjin's reign Arata-wake obtained him in Kudara and made him teacher to the Crown Prince, and since his career closely resembles Wani's, it may be suspected that they were not different men, but at present there is no further material for examining the question). In the fourteenth year of Emperor Kinmei (553), when the emperor made a progress to the Kusu-no-miya palace, Tatsuni received an imperial command and recorded the number of ships. He was therefore made chief of ships and was granted the surname Fune-no-Fuhito. The Fune-no-Muraji are his descendants (Note: the Shinsen Shōjiroku makes the Fune-no-Muraji descendants of Chini-no-Kimi, a third-generation descendant of Prince Taarō. Chini is another reading of Tatsuni, the sounds being the same). In the first year of Emperor Bidatsu (572), a memorial arrived from Koma (Koguryŏ). The envoys were assembled and made to read it, but no one understood its meaning. Tatsuni unraveled the sense of the text. The emperor praised him and said, "Tatsuni has done well; Tatsuni is admirable. Had you not loved learning, who could have deciphered this? From now on, serve close to the palace." He also issued an edict rebuking the Fuhito of east and west: "Why can you achieve nothing? Though you are many, you do not equal Tatsuni alone." Furthermore, the memorial from Koma had been written on crow's feathers, and the characters could not be made out. Tatsuni took the feathers, steamed them over a koshiki, a rice steamer, pressed silk cloth against them, and took the writing off onto it. The characters then all appeared and at last could be read. The emperor greatly marveled at this (Note: following the Nihon Shoki. The Jikkinshō suggests that the crow-feather memorial may be a story in which Wani, as a Fuhito, made this achievement clear, but it is not known on what it is based).

Fujii-no-Hironari

¶Shirai-no-Ichitsu was a nephew of Tatsuni. In the spring of the thirtieth year of Emperor Kinmei (569), the emperor commanded Ichitsu to inspect the registers of the Tabe, farming households, of Shirai. In the fourth month of that year the registers were finally fixed and the people were grouped as Tahe, field households. The emperor praised his achievement and granted him the surname Shirai-no-Fuhito. Soon afterwards he was appointed Tatsukasa, Overseer of Fields, and became assistant to Yamada-no-Mizuko. In the third year of Emperor Bidatsu (574), the Great Minister Soga-no-Umako was sent to Kibi province to establish additional Shirai Miyake, imperial granaries, and Tabe, and the name registers of those Tabe were handed to Ichitsu (Note: following the Nihon Shoki).

Ki-no-Kiyohito

¶Fujii-no-Hironari was originally surnamed Shirai-no-Fuhito. Raised to Junior Sixth Rank Upper, he became Daigeki, Senior Secretary. In the Yōrō era he was sent as envoy to Silla, and on that occasion he was granted his present surname (Note: following the Shoku Nihongi). He once sat the taisaku examination. The question read: "Ritual takes reverence as its principal aim and makes the five distinctions; music takes harmony as its root and embraces the eight sounds. The function of ordering the person and cultivating the nature, at the banquet, follows this way, and the meaning of governing the world and giving peace to the people is already exhausted in it. Through the ages there have been additions and subtractions, but the kings of each generation have handed it down. As for the use of ritual and music, there are already precedents. But their relative merit is not yet settled; set out the distinction in detail." He answered: "I have heard that when the three powers of heaven, earth and man first opened, the meaning of ritual arose, and when the feelings of men, joy, anger, sorrow and delight, gradually sprouted, the spirit of music began to stir. The establishment of ritual, the virtue of yin, has a foundation continuing without break from far antiquity; the beginning of music, the virtue of yang, also arose in remote ages and is truly ancient. As for the age of knotted cords used as records, it lies far back and is hard to make out in detail; but what has happened since the invention of writing can be spoken of clearly. Now ritual is like cosmetics that enrich a state, and music is like seasoning that changes customs. The reigns in which Yao and Shun yielded the throne to one another gave peace to those above through this Way, and even in ages of change by force of arms, men kept hold of this thread and taught those below. When good is beautifully practiced, auspicious signs such as red serpents and dragons appear of themselves; when harmony is kept, fair melodies such as the songs of the yellow bamboo and the white clouds ring out all the more. Therefore, at its highest it reaches the ends of heaven and hangs with the sun and moon, and at its farthest it spreads to the ends of the earth and stands beside the mountains and rivers. It is like the benefit of water and fire that moistens all things, or the taste of pears and tangerines that delights the mouth. Even if there has been nothing like the Lady Jiang's, that is, the Duke of Zhou's, fixing of the system of land, there has been something like the Xia dynasty's virtue answering to heaven. Then the meanings of the differing forms of reverence are all gathered in, and the traces of what is held in common are seen spread everywhere. Truly, for the rites of sacrifice and for the measures of bells and drums, in principle both must be practiced, and in righteousness neither may be abandoned." He was asked again: "Laozi fled the world and hid, and showed the principle of emptiness and mystery; Confucius, in the midst of hardship, cultivated the teaching of humaneness and righteousness. Some call the one subtle and the other crude, but what is the principle? We wish to hear the reason." He answered: "I have secretly heard that to yearn for the mountains and forests and put on the garments of a recluse is the mysterious teaching of the Daoists. This is the stream of Laozi, who was an official beneath the pillar. To enter the court and take a high post is the part of the Confucian, earnest in humaneness and righteousness. This is from the teaching of Confucius, who was Minister of Crime. Thus the principle of purity and emptiness shines forth in the two parts of the Laozi like a spring day, and the traces of upright governance are plain in the Five Classics like an autumn moon. Truly they can rescue men from their sufferings and continue the teaching of the kingly way that was nearly severed. I humbly consider that the virtue of the sacred court spreads widely through the world, and its teaching is higher than the Five Peaks; animals and plants receive its nurturing grace, and flying birds and running beasts are covered by its transforming influence. Though a violent wind blows five days, it does not make the branches of the trees ring, and though heavy rain falls ten days, it does not crumble a clod of earth. Moreover, the barbarians of the south, relying on the blue mist, cross the sea to come to court, and the barbarians of the north, adorning themselves, tread the white clouds and cross the mountains to come to court. So splendid is its flourishing influence. Yet what I still fear is that the teaching of Laozi has not yet had its rise and fall, and that between the Daoist and Confucian schools there is a question of superiority. I wish to divide their articles and examine their subtlety and coarseness. I secretly consider that the Daoist takes as its root being good in one person alone, has no heart to love and respect others, and abandons father and turns against lord. The Confucian takes as its root together saving the world, divides the order of high and low, and spends the body and gives its life. Judged in this way, their relative merit can be clearly determined" (Note: following the Keikokushū). In the Tenpyō era he was raised to Outer Junior Fifth Rank Lower. When an envoy from Silla came to court, Hironari went to Tsukushi with Tajihi-no-Hanishi and inspected the arrangements for entertaining the guests. Hironari memorialized: "The Silla envoy has changed the term for the tribute goods from 'mitsugi' to 'kunitsumono,' and has written the number of items in a note at the end of the document. In the light of old precedent, this is a grave failure of ordinary propriety." The Daijōkan ruled on it: "Summon those of Nagate's rank and above, tell them of the discourtesy, and send the envoy back." Hironari returned to the capital and became Bingo-no-kami, Governor of Bingo, rose gradually to Junior Fifth Rank Upper, and enjoyed great favor from the emperor. The imperial carriage once made a progress to Hironari's residence, where a banquet was held and the emperor stayed the night. Hironari and his wife, Agata-no-Inukai-no-Yae, were granted Senior Fifth Rank Upper. In the early years of Tenpyō Shōhō he became Nakatsukasa-shōfu, Junior Assistant Vice-Minister of the Center (Note: following the Shoku Nihongi).

Yamada-no-Mikata

¶Ki-no-Kiyohito (Note: "Kiyo" is also written with a different character) took part in the compilation of the national history in the Wadō era. In the first year of Reiki (715), he was praised for his scholarship and granted one hundred koku of grain. In the early years of Yōrō he was again granted one hundred koku of grain and became Monjō-hakase, Professor of Letters. The emperor commanded Yamada-no-Mikata, Yamanoue-no-Okura, Ochi-no-Hiroe, Takaoka-no-Kawachi, Shioya-no-Komaro, Tori-no-Senryō, and more than ten others to serve the Tōgū, the Crown Prince, after leaving court duties. Soon, because their learning was excellent and they were deemed fit to be teachers and models, they were granted ashiginu, coarse silk, thread, cloth, and hoes. In the Tenpyō era he served as Ukyō-no-suke, Assistant Governor of the Right Capital Office, and was then appointed Jibu-no-taifu, Senior Assistant Minister of Civil Affairs, again holding concurrently the post of Professor of Letters. When the emperor made a progress to the Naniwa palace, Kiyohito and others remained behind as caretakers at Heijō-kyō. He rose to Junior Fourth Rank Lower and Musashi-no-kami, Governor of Musashi. In the fifth year of Tenpyō Shōhō (753) he died (Note: following the Shoku Nihongi).

Takaoka-no-Kawachi

¶Yamada-no-Mikata (Note: the Nihon Shoki writes "Mikata" as "Mikata" with other characters, and the Kaifūsō writes it with yet others; all are read alike) was a descendant of Wang Chang, Minister of Works of Wei (Note: following the Shinsen Shōjiroku). He first became a monk and studied in Silla. In the reign of Emperor Jitō he returned to lay life and was granted the rank of Mukōshi (Note: following the Nihon Shoki). At the beginning of Emperor Monmu's reign he was granted Senior Sixth Rank Lower. In the Keiun era, praised for his learning, he was granted cloth, hoes, salt and grain. In the Wadō era he advanced to Junior Fifth Rank Lower and became Suō-no-kami, Governor of Suō. In the Yōrō era he advanced to Junior Fifth Rank Upper and became Professor of Letters. In the sixth year of Yōrō (722) he was charged with zōzai, the crime of wrongfully taking goods. The emperor issued an edict: "Yamada-no-Fuhito Mikata, former governor of Suō, committed wrongdoing while in a post of supervision, and in principle he should be stripped of office. But there was an earlier amnesty, and his offense has already been pardoned. If we sought to make him repay the goods in accordance with the law, there is not even a foot of cloth in his house. We consider that Mikata carried his books on his back and went far away, studying abroad in a foreign land. After returning to court, he taught many students and, as a scholar engaged in letters, he knows the rules of composition rather well. If we do not spare such a man, this path of learning will fall into decay. Let special mercy be shown, and let him not be required to repay the goods" (Note: following the Shoku Nihongi). Later he rose to Daigaku-no-kami, Head of the University (Note: following the Kaifūsō).

Takaoka-no-Hiramaro

¶Takaoka-no-Kawachi was originally surnamed Sasanami, and his father, the monk Eiji (Shamon-ei), had come over from Kudara and become a naturalized subject in the reign of Emperor Tenji. Kawachi was first Harima-no-daisakan, Senior Clerk of Harima, and built the Shōsō, government storehouses. In the Wadō era, rewarded for this achievement, he was raised one rank and granted ten bolts of ashiginu and thirty tan of cloth. In the Yōrō era he became Professor of Letters. At the beginning of Jinki he changed his surname to the present one. In the Tenpyō era he became Ukyō-no-suke and distributed house plots to the commoners of the capital. He became Zōgū-no-suke, Assistant Director of Palace Construction, and took part in building the Shigaraki detached palace. He was transferred to Hōki-no-kami, Governor of Hōki. In the Tenpyō Shōhō era he rose to Senior Fifth Rank Lower and Daigaku-no-kami. He had a son, Hiramaro (Note: following the Shoku Nihongi).

Ō-no-Yasumaro

¶Takaoka-no-Hiramaro studied at the University from his youth and was widely versed in books and records. In the Tenpyō Hōji era he became Echizen-no-suke, Assistant Governor of Echizen, was transferred to Kura-no-suke, Assistant Director of the Treasury, and concurrently served as Daigeki. When Fujiwara-no-Nakamaro rose in rebellion, Hiramaro reported the disturbance to the court. Praised for this service, he was granted Junior Fourth Rank Lower. At the beginning of Tenpyō Jingo he was granted the Fourth Order of Merit, and soon afterwards concurrently became Tōtōmi-no-kami, Governor of Tōtōmi. In the first year of Jingo Keiun (767) he concurrently served as Uejinosuke, Assistant Commander of the Right Gate Guards, and rose to Kura-no-kami, Director of the Treasury. His surname was changed from Muraji to Sukune (Note: following the Shoku Nihongi).

Kudara-no-Yamatomaro

¶Ō-no-Yasumaro was a descendant of Kamuyaimimi-no-Mikoto (Note: following the Shinsen Shōjiroku and the Nihon Shoki Shiki). At the beginning of Keiun (704) he was granted Junior Fifth Rank Lower. In the Wadō era he advanced to Senior Fifth Rank Upper (Note: following the Shoku Nihongi), was granted the Fifth Order of Merit, and by imperial command compiled the Kojiki. Originally Emperor Tenmu had been troubled that many of the records transmitted in the various houses told falsehoods and had finally lost the truth. At that time there was a man named Hieda-no-Are, twenty-eight years old, of excellent memory and well versed in many ancient matters of high antiquity. The emperor therefore had what he remembered recorded, intending to compile the imperial chronicle on that basis. But afterwards the emperor died. Through the reigns of Emperor Jitō and Emperor Monmu the plan for the undertaking was not realized. At this time Empress Genmei took up that intention and sought to bring it to completion. Yasumaro received the imperial command, collected what Are transmitted, recorded events from the age of the opening of heaven and earth down to the reign of Empress Suiko at the Oharida Palace, and presented it in three fascicles (Note: following the preface to the Kojiki). In the Reiki era he advanced to Junior Fourth Rank Lower, became head of his clan, and soon afterwards became Minbu-kyō, Minister of Popular Affairs. In the seventh year of Yōrō (723) he died (Note: following the Shoku Nihongi).

Shimotsukeno-no-Mushimaro

¶Kudara-no-Yamatomaro's ancestors were men of Kudara (Note: following the Shinsen Shōjiroku). In the Keiun era he sat the taisaku examination. The question read: "Within a few paces, the fragrance of orchids and fragrant herbs flows in vain; in a dozen houses there is only one superior horse lying in its stall. Even where one can tell the color of feathers, one may in the end mistake an ordinary Chu fowl, and since jade and stone are hard to tell apart, one may readily prize a common stone of Yan. Moreover, there was the case of Duke Ai of Lu, who slighted a teacher for his dull talent because of the teacher's tolerance, and of the squareness of the House of Ma, which was valued by Emperor Wen of Wei. The sense in which a sagacious Son of Heaven lamented the difficulty of judging men is surely this. Set out the essentials of the method of judging men." He answered: "I secretly consider that the Red Emperor, the founder of Han, was enlightened, yet knowing men was his weakness, and the Uncrowned King, Confucius, was endowed by heaven with wisdom, yet in selecting talent he sometimes erred in judgment. If so, it is hard even to tell stone from jade, and the true nature of the mugwort cannot be measured. Even if one can tell the difference between phoenix and fowl, one can by no means distinguish the essence of the grasses. Yet where there is the will to seek, one will surely not fail to find: Yi Yin carried a cauldron on his back and approached King Tang of Yin, and Ning Qi struck his ox horn and made himself known to Duke Huan of Qi. In this way the men who should be chosen are certain to be chosen. Shun of Yu drove out the Four Evils and used the worthy, and the Duke of Zhou removed his two uncles and gave peace to the Zhou government. How much more now, when the Way is widely practiced, virtue flourishes and guides men. Wherever Jupiter passes, men watch the wind and rain for omens and look up in reverence, and to every corner of the earth, all that lies within the limits of the borders is gathered into the registers. At last, for a single Shaowei star, the star of recluses, many seats of worthies respond, and as the great clouds of five colors spread everywhere, the ranks of the worthy fill the whole land. The foolish depart without being driven away, and the worthy gather of themselves without being summoned. This vast splendor is surely fitting for this age." He was asked again: "A minister who attends within the palace works diligently through the night; an upright official seeks to be pure and frugal day by day. Comparing these two ways, it is not easy to combine both. If one is forced to choose one, which should come first?" He answered: "I have heard that, facing the host of officials, one distributes the two powers of reward and punishment, and, governing the nine provinces, one promulgates the six regulations. To cast away gold and throw away jade was the integrity of Shun of Yu; to expose himself to wind and rain and labor at the control of the floods was the diligence of Yu of Xia. Moreover, Yang Zhen as governor showed a godlike knowledge in rejecting crooked ways, and Feng Bao as a gentleman of the palace served the Son of Heaven close at hand. Their honor was known to the world in life, and their fair names were praised after death. But integrity is endowed by heaven at birth, while diligence is built up by one's own effort. Moreover, those who drank water and left the calf at the water's edge, the upright officials, are few in history, and those who watched the stars and fled to avoid the tiger, the flatterers, have been many in ancient and modern times. My capacity is not like the jewel of Song but like the common stone of Yan, so how could I settle the root of what comes first and what second? I have only secretly set out one part of the general sense" (Note: following the Keikokushū). He was granted Senior Sixth Rank Upper and became Tajima-no-kami, Governor of Tajima. He died at the age of fifty-six (Note: following the Kaifūsō).

Tori-no-Senryō

¶Shimotsukeno-no-Mushimaro once sat the taisaku examination. The question read: "That which is called the heavenly dragon runs though it has no feet, and that which is called the earthly horse flies though it has no wings. Though the names differ from age to age, in bringing benefit they are the same. But those who plot deceit must not arbitrarily practice the counterfeiting of coin as in Western Shu, and those who seek profit wrongfully must not devote themselves to private minting as in Eastern Wu. They deceive and defraud many petty men and make light of the public offices. As a result the officials often toil at investigations and the prisons fill in vain. You, the presented scholars, should understand public principle. How should such wrongdoing be punished?" He answered: "I have secretly heard that even if sand and stones were changed into pearls and jade, it would be difficult to cure hunger with them, and only when the grain in the storehouses is piled like hills can life be easily sustained. From this it can be seen that before a painted rice cake one can only feel as if drinking blood, and that since the codes were fixed, everyone has been able to live on grain. Since Taigong Wang opened the monetary system of the nine treasuries and Guan Zhong established the mechanism of widely circulating coin, dragon patterns have been scattered within the capital and coins modeled on turtle shells have been mixed among gifts. White silver stirs up wicked hearts, and red copper coins stir men to compete in unlawful minting. The copper mountains of Western Shu merely monopolized the doors of those who flattered toadies, and the golden ditches of Eastern Jin in the end only filled the rooms of those who boasted of luxury. When light coins were cast aside in the age of the Ji clan, Duke Shan Mu satirized those who gather private profit, and when Liu An let private minting go unchecked, Jia Yi explained how hard it is to turn disaster around. This is exactly what arises from abandoning the basic occupations of farming and sericulture and contending for petty gain. I humbly consider that the sacred court grasps the mirror of heaven and commands the halberd of earth, that the voice of its grace spreads over the whole world, and that its supreme teaching extends without limit. Beasts holding rice plants in their mouths appear often, and fish gathering at the sight of the ears of grain that signal a good harvest are seen again and again. Now it is sought to stop acts of deceit and cut off the way of private minting. If we can truly harmonize the work of farming and fill the many storehouses with grain, we can inherit the character of the rule of Ji An, who slept on a high pillow at Huaiyang, and display the pure conduct of Zu Ti, who was seen off at Handan. Then men will not be misled by the pattern on the coin, and there will be no error in the weight of the cash. Presently the evil of clipping the edges of coin will cease, and the custom of hiding charcoal to commit fraud will vanish forever." He was asked again: "The teaching based on titles and duties of the Duke of Zhou and Confucius is the norm for raising up the state and educating the customs, and the maxims of Buddhism and Daoism are the art of calling down blessing and dispelling disaster. It is said that the inner teachings, Buddhism and Daoism, and the outer, Confucianism, are at odds, and yet that in terms of subtlety and coarseness they are one path. Decide whether they are the same or not, and make plain their truth and falsehood." He answered: "I secretly consider that if one looks from afar at the rulers of past ages, there were emperors who governed the world as swiftly as lightning and as widely as wings, and if one hears from afar the sound of the wind, there were emperors who opened the Way through the eight quarters and the three dynasties. Though a thousand years have passed, the source still returns to one. Only, what is expedient for the time is not uniform, and the methods of remedying abuses also differ. Now the Daoist school concerns itself with the pure and empty state, and its basic purport returns to being good in oneself alone, while the Confucian school holds to a winding principle but in its essence rests on saving the world together. Therefore the story that a qilin appeared and tears were shed is carved in the hidden teaching of the Spring and Autumn Annals, the book of the state of Lu, and the poem of the wolf's tread is made plain in the correct teaching of the Book of Odes, the poetry anthology of Zhou. As for the light of Buddhism shining in the east and its preaching of the way of enlightenment, and the departure of Laozi westward with the purple vapor in the hope of perfecting his mysterious teaching, these are matters truly deep and hidden, not easily probed, and their principles are profound and hard to grasp. Yet if one traces in detail the source of educating the customs and inquires fully into the art of dispelling disaster, there are already confusing differences like those between the Zi and Mian rivers (Note: "shallow" is probably an error), and also a division of clear and muddy like that between the Jing and Wei rivers. But if one's learning does not reach the chest of gold, one will merely mistake the principles of sameness and difference in vain, and if one's words are vague like jade scraps, how can one set out the sense of truth and falsehood?" (Note: following the Keikokushū). In the Yōrō era he rose to Junior Fifth Rank Upper and Professor of Letters, and served as Shikibu-ingai-no-shōfu, Supernumerary Junior Assistant Minister of Ceremonial, and Daigaku-no-jokyō, Assistant Professor at the University (Note: following the Shoku Nihongi). He died at the age of thirty-six (Note: following the Kaifūsō).

Shimotsukeno-no-Komaro

¶Tori-no-Senryō (Note: the Man'yōshū writes "Tori" with different characters; the sounds are the same) once sat the taisaku examination. The question read: "In establishing offices and dividing duties, one must obtain men suited to them. But the weight of duties differs, and abilities have their strengths and shortcomings. When one entrusts a matter to a man and demands results, to overturn this is to bring disaster. Tell us the essentials of employing men and of handing over their charges." He answered: "I secretly consider that Heaven lets down the seven stars of the Dipper so that the 365 degrees of the stars' course may be distinguished, and Earth sets out the eight seats and fixes by articles the three thousand ceremonies. Therefore edicts differing for east and west are issued, the course of the four seasons is set in order like the jade candle, punishment and virtue are used together, and all the affairs of government are governed as fairly as by a golden mirror. When the many ministers divide their duties among them, Yu, the minister of Shun, brought the beautiful virtue of reverence, and when ten worthy ministers served the court, the flourishing gathering of many talents appeared around King Wu of Zhou. When Shi Hui returned to government, many bandits left the borders of Jin, and when Taishu governed, many treacherous ministers gathered in the marsh of Pu in Zheng. Thus the weight of duties and the strengths and shortcomings of ability may roughly be discussed. I humbly consider that the court of this country governs the land of the sun in peace, its virtue reaches to the ends of heaven, and, like King Yu, it takes up the banner and summons able men, and, like Yao, it sits in the great way and seeks out the worthy. The ministers who fled Zhou and avoided Han serve in rows like wild geese on the palace steps, and the lofty men who wandered at the Ying River and hid on Mount Ji serve in ranks like fish scales at the palace gate. Governing without action, they order the age like the motion of the heavens, and by the Way they rule with garments hanging loose. From this it can be seen that, as in the old story of those who drew water from the Yellow River and shared one boat, the royal line of seven hundred years flourished through the virtue of wood, and, as in the old story of pointing at a deer and calling it a horse, the spirit of metal, Qin, perished in two generations. If one obtains the suitable man, a voice singing the harmony of government rises; if one employs one not fit for the post, one earns the reproach of merely eating one's stipend. Judged in this light, the rough distinctions can be made. Yet in the eastern state of Lu, it is said that even Confucius, a sage from birth, was perplexed by the exchange of two children, and in western Shu, even those excellent in letters could not answer a single question. How much more, when it comes to entrusting great undertakings, even the Son of Heaven finds it hard. How much more for one of shallow learning and little talent: how could I set it out in detail?" He was asked again: "If fierce flames burn a mountain, those who fear them flee back; if soft water floods a hill, those accustomed to it are instead the ones who die. Therefore Zichan, the man of Dongli, left stern words, and Ximen Bao governed strictly. Yet when Zang Sun governed, Tanboku, that is Duanmu, slandered him, and after Lian Fan took office, the people of Yunzhong sang of his virtue. Tell us your thoughts on the essentials of leniency and severity." He answered: "I secretly consider that when the flying dragon moves without ceasing, its vigorous, fierce working appears. When a horse walks without rest, the benefit of its docility bears fruit. It is man who receives the breath of heaven and earth, and it is the heart that holds the feelings of joy and anger. Since the two inherit the same thing yet hold different things, both leniency and severity accord with reason. Severity is able to forbid and cut off evil, and Zichan used the simile of fierce flames. Leniency is to love together, and Lian Fan issued an order permitting night work. When the Duke of Pei, Liu Bang, entered Luoyang, Emperor Yi permitted his leniency. When Zilu spoke of his aims, Confucius, the Uncrowned King, was pleased by his courage. These are already recorded in the classics and also written in the histories. In principle there are two paths, but the basis is one. Yet to govern gently, as one smooths hair and loosens a rope, is a virtue praised in the histories of old, and to aid severity with leniency is a maxim of the sages of old. Therefore water avoids the high and flows to the low, and the people leave severity and turn toward the lax. By the direction in which water and people turn, the general essentials of leniency and severity are made plain. I would wish the strung-bow warriors to serve with brooms in a lenient court, and the officials girded with tanned leather to serve with sashes tied in an age of peace" (Note: following the Keikokushū). In the Yōrō era he was commanded to serve the Tōgū after leaving court duties (Note: following the Shoku Nihongi), and rose to Senior Sixth Rank Upper. He died at the age of fifty-nine (Note: following the Kaifūsō).

Tsuki-no-Okina

¶Shimotsukeno-no-Komaro was a fifth-generation descendant of Toyokiirihiko-no-Mikoto and a descendant of Takihase-no-Kimi (Note: following the Shinsen Shōjiroku). He was granted the rank of Jikikōsan. At the beginning of Emperor Monmu's reign he took part in the compilation of the ritsuryō, the penal and administrative codes (Note: following the Shoku Nihongi). In the first year of Taihō (701) he was newly granted Junior Fourth Rank Lower, became Udaiben, Senior Controller of the Right, and took part in the lectures on the new codes. In the second year of Taihō (702) he was made a Sangi, Counsellor, in the government of the court. Soon afterwards an edict was issued: "Shimotsukeno-no-Komaro, Iki-no-Hakatoko, Tsuki-no-Okina, and Iyobe-no-Umakai took part in establishing the codes. Deliberate rewards in accordance with their merit." Komaro was granted ten chō of fields and fifty households of fief. The fief households, however, were to be limited to his own lifetime, while the fields were to be passed down for one generation of his descendants. A further twenty chō was added, and he advanced to Junior Fourth Rank Upper. In the Keiun era he became Hyōbu-kyō, Minister of Military Affairs. In the first year of Wadō (708) he was transferred to Shikibu-kyō, Minister of Ceremonial. The emperor summoned the Kugyō, the high ministers, praised their conduct of their duties, and advanced Komaro to Senior Fourth Rank Lower. In the second year of Wadō (709) he became a Daishōgun, Great General (Note: how he came to be made Great General is not clear. At that time Kose-no-Maro was Michinoku Chintō-shōgun, General for the Pacification of the East in Mutsu, and Saeki-no-Iwayu was general for the campaign against the Emishi of Echigo, so Komaro's appointment may have been around that time, but at present there is no further material for examining the matter). In the twelfth month of the same year he died (Note: following the Shoku Nihongi).

Iyobe-no-Umakai

¶Tsuki-no-Okina's ancestors were men of Kudara (Note: following the Shinsen Shōjiroku). In the reign of Empress Jitō, Okina was appointed to the Zengenshi, the office for selecting and collecting good words (Note: following the Nihon Shoki). Later he became Daigaku-no-kami (Note: following the Kaifūsō). After his death, at the beginning of Taihō, he was posthumously granted Senior Fifth Rank Upper, and in recognition of his achievement in compiling the codes his son was granted ten chō of meritorious fields and one hundred households of fief. The fief households, however, were to be limited to his own lifetime, while the fields were to be passed down for one generation of his descendants (Note: following the Shoku Nihongi).

Ōyamato-no-Nagaoka

¶Iyobe-no-Umakai (Note: the Nihon Shoki writes "kai" with a different character, but the reading is the same) traced his ancestry to Sukunakamitsumi-no-Mikoto, a descendant of Hoakari-no-Mikoto (Note: following the Sandai Jitsuroku, Jōgan 4). Umakai was appointed to the Zengenshi in the reign of Empress Jitō (Note: following the Nihon Shoki). Later he became Kōtaishi-gakushi, Scholar to the Crown Prince, and rose to Junior Fifth Rank Lower. He died at the age of forty-five (Note: following the Kaifūsō). In the Taihō era, in recognition of his achievement in compiling the codes, his son was granted six chō of meritorious fields and one hundred households of fief. The fief households were limited to his own lifetime, and the fields were to be passed down for one generation of his descendants. When Umakai was once a district official of Yosa district in Tanba province, he wrote down the tale of Urashima-ko of Mizunoe and handed it down to the world (Note: following the Tango Fudoki, as cited in the Shaku Nihongi).

Yako-no-Mimi

¶Yamato-no-Nagaoka was a descendant of Kamuchitsuhiko-no-Mikoto. In the reign of Emperor Jinmu, Kamuchitsuhiko became Yamato-no-Kuni-no-Miyatsuko, Governor of Yamato, on account of his merit (Note: following the Shinsen Shōjiroku), and his descendants held this office by inheritance generation after generation. His father, Iotari, was granted Junior Fifth Rank Upper and became Gyōbu-no-shōfu, Junior Assistant Minister of Justice. Nagaoka succeeded him as Kuni-no-Miyatsuko. From youth he loved the study of punishments and law, and was also skilled in letters. In the Reiki era he studied in Tang, learning and clarifying many matters. At that time those who discussed laws and ordinances all questioned this Nagaoka to confirm their views (Note: following the Shoku Nihongi). In the Yōrō era, when Fujiwara-no-Fuhito revised and refined the ritsuryō (Note: following the preface to the Ryō-no-Gige), Nagaoka deleted and fixed twenty-four articles. He was granted four chō of meritorious fields. In the Tenpyō Shōhō era his surname was changed to Imiki, and he was further granted Sukune. At the beginning of Tenpyō Hōji he rose gradually to Senior Fifth Rank Upper, and his meritorious fields were passed to his son. Soon afterwards he became Minbu-no-taifu, Senior Assistant Minister of Popular Affairs, concurrently served as Daichū of the Konguukan, was appointed Sakyō-no-daibu, Governor of the Left Capital, and was transferred to Kawachi-no-kami, Governor of Kawachi. His administration was harsh, and officials and people alike suffered under it. He advanced to Junior Fourth Rank Lower but resigned his office and withdrew to his home. He also became Ukyō-no-daibu, Governor of the Right Capital. He resigned on grounds of old age. At the New Year banquet in the second year of Jingo Keiun (768), the emperor specially permitted him to attend in the hall. Nagaoka's hair at the temples had not yet faded, and his bearing and movements were without fault. When the emperor asked, "How old are you?", Nagaoka answered, "This worthless body of mine is just eighty years old." The emperor deeply marveled at this and advanced him to Senior Fourth Rank Lower. The following year he died (Note: following the Shoku Nihongi).

Yazume-no-Mushimaro

¶Yako-no-Mimi (Note: the Shinsen Shōjiroku writes "Yako" with other characters, and the sounds are all the same; here the Shoku Nihongi is followed) traced his ancestry to Yanghou Ashi-ō, a Datsusotsu, a descendant of Emperor Yang of Sui (Note: following the Shinsen Shōjiroku). Mimi took part in the revision of the ritsuryō in the Yōrō era and was granted four chō of meritorious fields. At the beginning of Tenpyō, by imperial command, he taught the Chinese language to two disciples and went out to the provinces as Bungo-no-kami, Governor of Bungo. At that time Kawachi and Settsu provinces were in dispute over river embankments, and he inspected them under imperial command. He was transferred to Tajima-no-kami, Governor of Tajima, and rose to Junior Fifth Rank Lower (Note: following the Shoku Nihongi).

Shioya-no-Komaro

¶Yazume-no-Mushimaro (Note: "ya" is also written with a different character) was a descendant of Ikagashikoo-no-Mikoto (Note: following the Shinsen Shōjiroku). In the Yōrō era he took part in the revision of the ritsuryō. Soon afterwards he became Myōbō-hakase, Professor of Law. For his service in the revision he was granted five chō of meritorious fields. In the Tenpyō era he was granted Outer Junior Fifth Rank Lower and served successively as Daihanji, Senior Judge, and Daigaku-no-kami. At the beginning of Tenpyō Hōji his meritorious fields were passed to his son (Note: following the Shoku Nihongi).

Yamada-no-Shirogane

¶Shioya-no-Komaro (Note: the Shoku Nihongi writes "Ko" with a different character, or sometimes yet another; here the Ruijū Kokushi and the Kaifūsō are followed) was a descendant of Katsuragi-no-Sotsuhiko-no-Mikoto (Note: following the Shinsen Shōjiroku). In the Yōrō era he took part in the revision of the ritsuryō. Soon afterwards he became Professor of Law. Also, for his service in the revision, he was granted five chō of meritorious fields. At the beginning of Tenpyō Hōji those fields were passed to his son. In the Tenpyō era he was granted Outer Junior Fifth Rank Lower. Implicated in the affair of Fujiwara-no-Hirotsugu, he was sent into exile. Later he was recalled by imperial command (Note: following the Shoku Nihongi). He assisted the Daigaku-no-kami (Note: following the Kaifūsō).

Ōyamato-no-Oazumahito

¶Yamada-no-Shirogane (Note: "Shirogane" is also written as "Shirokin") took part in the revision of the ritsuryō in the Yōrō era (Note: following the preface to the Ryō-no-Gige). He was granted Outer Junior Fifth Rank Lower, had his surname changed from Fuhito to Muraji, became Professor of Law, concurrently served as Kazue-no-suke, Assistant Director of the Bureau of Accounts, and went out to the provinces as Kawachi-no-suke, Assistant Governor of Kawachi (Note: following the Shoku Nihongi). Shirogane was thoroughly versed in the codes, and later students of law looked up to him as a model (Note: following the Montoku Jitsuroku, Ten'an 2).

Moribe-no-Ōsumi

¶Yamato-no-Oazumahito took part in the revision of the ritsuryō in the Yōrō era and was granted four chō of meritorious fields. In the Tenpyō era Oazumahito and Daigeki Yamato-no-Nagamori and others had their surnames changed to Imiki and were further granted Sukune. He became Gyōbu-no-shōfu. Implicated in the affair of Fujiwara-no-Hirotsugu, he was demoted (Note: this record does not say as governor or assistant governor of which province he was demoted, and at present there is no further material for examining the question). Soon he was recalled and became deputy of the Saikaidō Junsatsushi, Inspector of the Western Sea Circuit, and Settsu-no-suke, Assistant Governor of Settsu. In the Tenpyō Shōhō era he was transferred to Mikawa-no-kami, Governor of Mikawa. At the beginning of Tenpyō Hōji he rose to Senior Fifth Rank Upper (Note: following the Shoku Nihongi).

Ochi-no-Hiroe

¶Moribe-no-Ōsumi (Note: "Ōsumi" is also written with other characters; the reading is the same) was originally surnamed Kanuchi-no-Miyatsuko. At the beginning of Emperor Monmu's reign he took part in the compilation of the ritsuryō. Through the reigns of Empress Genmei and Empress Genshō he rose gradually to Junior Fifth Rank Upper, served as Gyōbu-no-shōfu, and became Myōgyō Daiichi Hakase, First Professor of the Classics. In the Yōrō era, together with Ochi-no-Hiroe, Sena-no-Kōbun, Tsuki-no-Komaro, Yazume-no-Mushimaro, Shioya-no-Komaro, Yamada-no-Mikata, Ki-no-Kiyohito, Shimotsukeno-no-Mushimaro, and more than ten others, he was deemed excellent in learning and fit to be a teacher and model, and was specially granted ashiginu, thread, cloth, and hoes. In the Jinki era he advanced to Senior Fifth Rank Lower and was granted his present surname. He submitted a memorial asking to resign, but was refused by a courteous edict and was granted ten bolts each of silk and ashiginu, one hundred bolts of floss silk, and forty tan of cloth (Note: following the Shoku Nihongi). He rose to Senior Fifth Rank Upper and Daigaku-hakase, Professor at the University. He died at the age of seventy-three (Note: following the Kaifūsō).

Sena-no-Kōbun

¶Ochi-no-Hiroe was a descendant of Nigihayahi-no-Mikoto (Note: following the Shinsen Shōjiroku). In the Yōrō era he became First Professor of the Classics. An edict commanded that after leaving court duties he serve the Tōgū (Note: following the Shoku Nihongi). He rose to Junior Fifth Rank Lower and Gyōbu-no-shōfu and concurrently held the post of Professor at the University (Note: following the Kaifūsō).

Tsuki-no-Komaro

¶Sena-no-Kōbun became Myōgyō Daini Hakase, Second Professor of the Classics, in the Yōrō era. In the Jinki era he was granted Junior Fifth Rank Lower (Note: following the Shoku Nihongi). He rose to Daigaku-no-suke, Assistant Director of the University. He died at the age of sixty-two (Note: following the Kaifūsō). He once composed a poem satirizing flatterers, which was handed down and recited in the world (Note: following the Man'yōshū).

Kiyomura-no-Shinkyō

¶Tsuki-no-Komaro became Professor of the Classics in the Yōrō era (Note: following the Shoku Nihongi). Later he became Scholar to the Crown Prince. He rose to Senior Sixth Rank Upper (Note: following the Kaifūsō).

Tsuki-no-Komaro

¶Kiyomura-no-Shinkyō was a man of Tang, originally surnamed Yuan. In the Tenpyō era he accompanied a Japanese embassy to Tang and became a naturalized subject. Before he was twenty he was versed in the pronunciation of the Wen Xuan and the Erya, and he became Onhakase, Professor of Pronunciation. At the beginning of Jingo Keiun, when the emperor made a progress to the University's Sekiten, Shinkyō was granted Junior Fifth Rank Upper. He served successively as Daigaku-no-kami and Hyūga-no-kami, Governor of Hyūga. At the end of Hōki he became Genba-no-kami, Director of the Bureau of Buddhism and Foreign Guests, and was granted his present surname. In the Enryaku era he became Awa-no-kami, Governor of Awa (Note: following the Shoku Nihongi).

Narahara-no-Azumahito

¶Ki-no-Komaro's father was named Ushi (Note: following the Shoku Nihongi), who in the reign of Emperor Tenji became Gyoshi-taifu, Censor (Note: following the Nihon Shoki), and was posthumously granted Junior Third Rank (Note: following the Shoku Nihongi. The above is the account of Ki-no-Ushi). Komaro had literary talent and composed a poem on viewing snow, in seven-character lines, twelve lines long. He died at the age of fifty-nine. He had a son, Iimaro (Note: following the Shoku Nihongi and the Kugyō Bunin; the Ki Genealogy makes him a younger brother of Komaro).

Sakai-no-Mimaro

¶Ki-no-Iimaro, in the Tenpyō era, when Fujiwara-no-Hirotsugu rose in rebellion, went as deputy general to suppress him. Soon afterwards he became Udaiben, Senior Controller of the Right. When the Dazaifu was abolished, Iimaro received an order to transfer the government property to the provincial governor of Chikuzen. He became Kinai Junsatsushi, Inspector of the Home Provinces, and went out to the provinces as Hitachi-no-kami, Governor of Hitachi. In the Tenpyō Shōhō era he served successively as Dazai-no-daini, Senior Assistant Governor-General of Dazaifu, Ōkura-kyō, Minister of the Treasury, Ukyō-no-daibu, and Saikaidō Junsatsushi. At the beginning of Tenpyō Hōji he was transferred to Sadaiben, Senior Controller of the Left, was appointed Sangi, and concurrently served as Shibi-no-taihitsu, Senior Assistant of the Shibichūdai. With the renaming of official titles he moved to Gibu-kyō, Minister of Justice (the renamed Gyōbu-kyō), and was appointed Mimasaka-no-kami, Governor of Mimasaka. In the sixth year of Tenpyō Hōji (762) he was granted Junior Third Rank. He asked to resign because of illness, and soon afterwards died (Note: following the Shoku Nihongi).

¶Narahara-no-Azumahito was a man of the Right Capital. He was widely versed in the Nine Classics, the nine Confucian canonical works, and was known as a famous Confucian scholar (Note: following the Montoku Jitsuroku, Ninju 2). He was first granted Senior Sixth Rank Upper. In the Tenpyō era he rose gradually to Junior Fifth Rank Lower (Note: following the Shoku Nihongi) and became Suruga-no-kami, Governor of Suruga. He once found gold at Tago-no-ura in Iohara district within his jurisdiction and presented it. The emperor was pleased and said, "He has done his utmost, this retainer!" Taking the sense of "diligent retainer," he granted him the surname Isoshi-no-Omi (Note: the Shoku Nihongi is chiefly followed, with the Montoku Jitsuroku also consulted). At the beginning of Tenpyō Hōji he advanced to Senior Fifth Rank Lower (Note: following the Shoku Nihongi).

¶His grandson Kayaku was granted a changed surname, Kono-no-Sukune, in the Enryaku era (Note: following the Montoku Jitsuroku). At the end of Kōnin he was granted the surname Ason (Note: following the Sandai Jitsuroku, Jōgan 1). He was granted Junior Fifth Rank Upper and became Owari-no-kami, Governor of Owari (Note: following the Montoku Jitsuroku). Kayaku's son Sadanushi has a separate biography.

¶Sakai-no-Mimaro's ancestors were men of Koma (Koguryŏ) (Note: following the Shinsen Shōjiroku). In the first year of Ten'ō (781) he was granted Senior Fifth Rank Lower. At the beginning of Enryaku he became Zō-Hokkeji-chōkan, Director of Works of the Hokkeji, and Onmyō-no-kami, Director of the Bureau of Yin and Yang. Mimaro was clear in the study of the classics and upright in conduct, and his purity and modesty had long been known. His years already reached eighty, and the younger scholars especially deferred to him. The court rewarded him generously and specially granted him ashiginu, cloth, rice and salt (Note: following the Shoku Nihongi).